Safety of Edible Flowers

Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods

November 23, 2015, Pages 395-419

  (Book Chapter)

Nicolau, A.I., 

Gostin, A.I.

 

Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Dunarea de Jos, University of Galati, Galati, Romania 

View references (79)

Abstract

Petal flowers are present more and more often in our dishes, so this chapter discusses their origin, history of use, and other useful things that have to be known by the modern consumer. A list of edible flowers mentioning some of the bioactive substances they contain is provided. Traditional and modern methods of preservation are presented, mentioning which flowers are better suited for one method or another. Regarding consumers safety, it is stressed that correct identification of edible flowers is the first step to be taken, but other measures are also pointed out. A discussion of toxic alkaloids, pollen, pesticides, and pathogens as factors of public health risks associated with edible flowers is presented. It is highlighted that regulations have to be mandated and new information concerning the composition and nutritional value of edible flowers must be added to the existing one to characterize them better. Future trends reflecting consumer wishes regarding petal flower consumption and the responses of scientists, food producers and distributors are also considered. © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Author keywords

Alkaloid; Allergy; Floriphagia; Pathogen; Pesticide; Petal; Pollen; Preservation; Safety

ISBN: 978-012800620-7;978-012800605-4Source Type: Book Original language: English

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800605-4.00021-9Document Type: Book Chapter

Publisher: Elsevier Inc.

References (79)

View in search results format

• Page
 
• • Export |
  • Print |
  • E-mail |
  • Create bibliography

• 
  1

  Ammar, I., Ennouri, M., Khemakhem, B., Yangui, T., Attia, H.

  Variation in chemical composition and biological activities of two species of Opuntia flowers at four stages of flowering
  (2012) Industrial Crops and Products, 37 (1), pp. 34-40. Cited 18 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.11.027
  
• 
  2

  Ammar, N., El-Hakeem, R.A., El-Kashoury, E.-S.A., El-Kassem, L.A., El-Hakeem, R.E.A.
  Evaluation of the phenolic content and antioxidant potential of Althaea rosea cultivated in Egypt
  (2013) Journal of the Arab Society for Medical Research, 8 (2), pp. 48-52.
  

  •  
• 
  3

  Amri, E.
  The role of selected plant families with dietary ethnomedicinal species used as anticancer
  (2014) Journal of Medicinal Plant Studies, 2 (1), pp. 28-39. Cited 3 times.
  

  •  
• 
  4

  Aquino-Bolaños, E.N., Urrutia-Hernández, T.A., López Del Castillo-Lozano, M., Chavéz-Servia, J.L., Verdalet-Guzmán, I.

  Physicochemical parameters and antioxidant compounds in edible squash (cucurbita pepo) flower stored under controlled atmospheres
  (2013) Journal of Food Quality, 36 (5), pp. 302-308. Cited 2 times.
  doi: 10.1111/jfq.12053
  
• 
  5

  Asgarpanah, J., Kazemivash, N.

  Phytochemistry, pharmacology and medicinal properties of carthamus tinctorius L.
  (2013) Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine, 19 (2), pp. 153-159. Cited 21 times.
  doi: 10.1007/s11655-013-1354-5
  
• 
  6

  Bame, M.
  Optimal storage temperature and duration of edible flowers
  (2004) The Cut Flower Quarterly, p. 14.
  Spring
  

  •  
• 
  7

  Bilal, A., Jahan, N., Ahmed, A., Naaz Bilal, S., Habib, S., Hajra, S.
  Phytochemical and pharmacological studies on Ocimum basilicum-a review
  (2012) International Journal of Current Research and Review, 4 (23), pp. 73-83. Cited 12 times.
  

  •  
• 
  8

  Cartea, M.E., Francisco, M., Soengas, P., Velasco, P.

  Phenolic compounds in Brassica vegetables
  (2011) Molecules, 16 (1), pp. 251-280. Cited 147 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/16/1/251/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/molecules16010251
  
• 
  9

  Cavaiuolo, M., Ferrante, A.

  Nitrates and glucosinolates as strong determinants of the nutritional quality in rocket leafy salads
  (2014) Nutrients, 6 (4), pp. 1519-1538. Cited 11 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/6/4/1519/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/nu6041519
  
• 
  10

  Ciancolini, A.
  (2012)
  Characterization and selection of globe artichoke and cardoon germplasm for biomass, food and biocompound production
  http://oatao.univ-toulouse.fr/6995/
  

  •  
• 
  11

  Costa Marques, T.H., Santos De Melo, C.H., Fonseca De Carvalho, R.B., Costa, L.M., De Souza, A.A., David, J.M., De Lima David, J.P., (...), De Freitas, R.M.

  Phytochemical profile and qualification of biological activity of an isolated fraction of Bellis perennis
  (2013) Biological Research, 46 (3), pp. 231-238. Cited 2 times.
  http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/bres/v46n3/art02.pdf
  doi: 10.4067/S0716-97602013000300002
  
• 
  12

  Davies, G., Saunders, G.
  (2012) The romantic language of flowers, p. 111.
  Worth Press, Cambridge, England
  

  •  
• 
  13

  Dokuparthi, S., Manikanta, P.
  Phytochemical and pharmacological studies on Chrysanthemum coronarium L.: a review
  (2015) Journal of Drug Discovery and Therapeutics, 3 (27), pp. 11-16.
  

  •  
• 
  14

  Duda, S., Marghitas, L.A., Dezmirean, D., Bobis, O.
  Overview regarding the bioactivity of Agastache foeniculum and Nepeta cataria species
  (2015) Bulletin UASVM Animal Science and Biotechnologies, 72 (1), pp. 24-31.
  

  •  
• 
  15

  Engelmann, N.J., Reppert, A., Yousef, G., Rogers, R.B., Lila, M.A.

  In vitro production of radiolabeled red clover (Trifolium pratense) isoflavones
  (2009) Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 98 (2), pp. 147-156. Cited 21 times.
  doi: 10.1007/s11240-009-9547-5
  
• 
  16

  Fernández, J., Curt, M.D., Aguado, P.L.

  Industrial applications of Cynara cardunculus L. for energy and other uses
  (2006) Industrial Crops and Products, 24 (3), pp. 222-229. Cited 90 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2006.06.010
  
• 
  17

  Garg, C., Khan, S.A., Ansari, S.H., Suman, A., Garg, M.

  Chemical composition, therapeutic potential and perspectives of Foeniculum vulgare
  (2009) Pharmacognosy Reviews, 3 (6), pp. 346-352. Cited 7 times.
  http://www.phcogrev.com/temp/PhcogRev36346-4128148_112801.pdf
  
• 
  18

  Garzón, G.A., Wrolstad, R.E.

  Major anthocyanins and antioxidant activity of Nasturtium flowers (Tropaeolum majus)
  (2009) Food Chemistry, 114 (1), pp. 44-49. Cited 28 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.013
  
• 
  19

  Guarrera, P.M., Savo, V.

  Perceived health properties of wild and cultivated food plants in local and popular traditions of Italy: A review
  (2013) Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 146 (3), pp. 659-680. Cited 40 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.01.036
  
• 
  20

  Heamalatha, S., Swarnalatha, S., Divya, M., Gandhi Lakshmi, R., Ganga Devi, A., Gomathi, E.

  Pharmacognostical, pharmacological, investigation on anethum graveolens Linn: A review
  (2011) Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences, 2 (4), pp. 564-574. Cited 11 times.
  http://www.rjpbcs.com/pdf/2011_2(4)/[57].pdf
  
• 
  21

  Hiramatsu, M., Takahashi, T., Komatsu, M., Kido, T., Kasahara, Y.

  Antioxidant and neuroprotective activities of mogami-benibana (safflower, carthamus tinctorius linne)
  (2009) Neurochemical Research, 34 (4), pp. 795-805. Cited 31 times.
  doi: 10.1007/s11064-008-9884-5
  
• 
  22

  Hirulkar, N., Agrawal, M.
  Antimicrobial activity of rose petals extract against some pathogenic bacteria
  (2010) International Journal of Pharmaceutical & Biological Archive, 1 (5), pp. 478-484. Cited 8 times.
  

  •  
• 
  23

  Hoffmann, D.
  (2003) Medical herbalism: the science and practice of herbal medicine. Cited 46 times.
  Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT
  

  •  
• 
  24

  Hu, C., Kitts, D.D.

  Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flower extract suppresses both reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide and prevents lipid oxidation in vitro
  (2005) Phytomedicine, 12 (8), pp. 588-597. Cited 69 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2003.12.012
  
• 
  25

  Jaber, B.M., Jasim, S.F.
  Phytochemical study of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol in Viola odorata plant cultivated in Iraq
  (2014) Iraqi Journal of Biotechnology, 13 (2), pp. 86-94.
  

  •  
• 
  26

  Jacob, M., Jaros, D., Rohm, H.

  Recent advances in milk clotting enzymes
  (2011) International Journal of Dairy Technology, 64 (1), pp. 14-33. Cited 41 times.
  doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.2010.00633.x
  
• 
  27

  Jinchun, Z., Jie, C.

  The effects of taraxacum officinale extracts (toe) supplementation on physical fatigue in mice
  (2011) African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 8 (2), pp. 128-133. Cited 5 times.
  http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?tc11017
  
• 
  28

  Kaisoon, O., Konczak, I., Siriamornpun, S.

  Potential health enhancing properties of edible flowers from Thailand
  (2012) Food Research International, 46 (2), pp. 563-571. Cited 29 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2011.06.016
  
• 
  29

  Kaisoon, O., Siriamornpun, S., Weerapreeyakul, N., Meeso, N.

  Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of edible flowers from Thailand
  (2011) Journal of Functional Foods, 3 (2), pp. 88-99. Cited 62 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2011.03.002
  
• 
  30

  Karioti, A., Furlan, C., Vincieri, F.F., Bilia, A.R.

  Analysis of the constituents and quality control of Viola odorata aqueous preparations by HPLC-DAD and HPLC-ESI-MS
  (2011) Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 399 (4), pp. 1715-1723. Cited 12 times.
  doi: 10.1007/s00216-010-4473-2
  
• 
  31

  Kelley, K.M., Cameron, A.C., Biernbaum, J.A., Poff, K.L.

  Effect of storage temperature on the quality of edible flowers
  (2003) Postharvest Biology and Technology, 27 (3), pp. 341-344. Cited 20 times.
  doi: 10.1016/S0925-5214(02)00096-0
  
• 
  32

  Khalid, K.A., Teixeira da Silva, J.A.
  Biology of Calendula officinalis Linn focus on pharmacology biological activities and agronomic practices
  (2012) Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Science and Biotechnology, 6 (1), pp. 12-27. Cited 11 times.
  

  •  
• 
  33

  Kolodziejczyk-Czepas, J.

  Trifolium species-derived substances and extracts - Biological activity and prospects for medicinal applications
  (2012) Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 143 (1), pp. 14-23. Cited 24 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.06.048
  
• 
  34

  Komes, D., Cvitanović, A.B., Horžić, D., Marković, K., Ganić, K.K.
  Characterisation of pigments and antioxidant properties of three medicinal plants dried under different drying conditions
  (2011) Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on Engineering and Food
  May 22-26, 2011
  

  •  
• 
  35

  Kucekova, Z., Mlcek, J., Humpolicek, P., Rop, O., Valasek, P., Saha, P.

  Phenolic compounds from allium schoenoprasum, tragopogon pratensis and rumex acetosa and their antiproliferative effects
  (2011) Molecules, 16 (11), pp. 9207-9217. Cited 19 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/16/11/9207/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/molecules16119207
  
• 
  36

  Kurkin, V.A.

  Phenylpropanoids from medicinal plants: Distribution, classification, structural analysis, and biological activity
  (2003) Chemistry of Natural Compounds, 39 (2), pp. 123-153. Cited 63 times.
  doi: 10.1023/A:1024876810579
  
• 
  37

  Lara-Cortés, E., Osorio-Díaz, P., Jiménez-Aparicio, A., Bautista-Baños, S.

  Nutritional content, functional properties and conservation of edible flowers. Review
  (2013) Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion, 63 (3), pp. 197-208. Cited 2 times.
  http://www.alanrevista.org/ediciones/2013/3/?i=art2
  
• 
  38

  Llorach, R., Espín, J.C., Tomás-Barberán, F.A., Ferreres, F.

  Artichoke (Cynara scolymus L.) Byproducts as a potential source of health-promoting antioxidant phenolics
  (2002) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50 (12), pp. 3458-3464. Cited 133 times.
  doi: 10.1021/jf0200570
  
• 
  39

  Lombardo, S., Pandino, G., Mauromicale, G., Knödler, M., Carle, R., Schieber, A.

  Influence of genotype, harvest time and plant part on polyphenolic composition of globe artichoke [Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus (L.) Fiori]
  (2010) Food Chemistry, 119 (3), pp. 1175-1181. Cited 59 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.08.033
  
• 
  40

  Mittal, S.

  Thin layer chromatography and high pressure liquid chromatography profiling of plant extracts of Viola odorata Linn.
  (2013) International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 4 (1), pp. B542-B549. Cited 3 times.
  http://www.ijpbs.net/download.php?download_file=vol-4/issue-1/bio/62.pdf&did=1946
  
• 
  41

  Mlcek, J., Rop, O.

  Fresh edible flowers of ornamental plants - A new source of nutraceutical foods
  (2011) Trends in Food Science and Technology, 22 (10), pp. 561-569. Cited 32 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2011.04.006
  
• 
  42

  Navarro-González, I., González-Barrio, R., García-Valverde, V., Bautista-Ortín, A.B., Periago, M.J.

  Nutritional composition and antioxidant capacity in edible flowers: Characterisation of phenolic compounds by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MSⁿ
  (2015) International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16 (1), pp. 805-822. Cited 4 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/16/1/805/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/ijms16010805
  
• 
  43

  Rabiei, Z., Rafieian-Kopaei, M., Mokhtari, S., Alibabaei, Z., Shahrani, M.

  The effect of pretreatment with different doses of Lavandula officinalis ethanolic extract on memory, learning and nociception
  (2014) Biomedicine and Aging Pathology, 4 (1), pp. 71-76. Cited 30 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.biomag.2013.10.006
  
• 
  44

  Rajeshwari, U., Andallu, B.
  Medicinal benefits of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L)
  (2011) Spatula DD, 1 (1), pp. 51-58. Cited 8 times.
  

  •  
• 
  45

  Dos Reis, L.C.R., De Oliveira, V.R., Hagen, M.E.K., Jablonski, A., Flôres, S.H., De Oliveira Rios, A.

  Effect of cooking on the concentration of bioactive compounds in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. Avenger) and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. Alphina F1) grown in an organic system
  (2014) Food Chemistry, 172, pp. 770-777.
  www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.124
  
• 
  46

  Rigane, G., Ben Younes, S., Ghazghazi, H., Ben Salem, R.

  Investigation into the biological activities and chemical composition of Calendula officinalis L. Growing in Tunisia
  (2013) International Food Research Journal, 20 (6), pp. 3001-3007. Cited 2 times.
  http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/20%20(06)%202013/4%20IFRJ%2020%20(06)%202013%20Rigane%20129.pdf
  
• 
  47

  Rop, O., Mlcek, J., Jurikova, T., Neugebauerova, J., Vabkova, J.

  Edible flowers - A new promising source of mineral elements in human nutrition
  (2012) Molecules, 17 (6), pp. 6672-6683. Cited 23 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/17/6/6672/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/molecules17066684
  
• 
  48

  Roy, A., Shrivastava, S.L., Mandal, S.M.
  Functional properties of Okra Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench): traditional claims and scientific evidences
  (2014) Plant Science Today, 1 (3), pp. 121-130.
  

  •  
• 
  49

  Salem, M.Z.M., Olivares-Pérez, J., Salem, A.Z.M.

  Studies on biological activities and phytochemicals composition of Hibiscus species - A review
  (2014) Life Science Journal, 11 (5), art. no. 1, pp. 1-8. Cited 2 times.
  http://www.lifesciencesite.com/lsj/life1105/001_23106life110514_1_8.pdf
  
• 
  50

  Sellami, I.H., Maamouri, E., Chahed, T., Wannes, W.A., Kchouk, M.E., Marzouk, B.

  Effect of growth stage on the content and composition of the essential oil and phenolic fraction of sweet marjoram (Origanum majorana L.)
  (2009) Industrial Crops and Products, 30 (3), pp. 395-402. Cited 68 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.07.010
  
• 
  51

  Shah, M.A., Mir, S.A., Paray, M.A.

  Plant proteases as milk-clotting enzymes in cheesemaking: A review
  (2014) Dairy Science and Technology, 94 (1), pp. 5-16. Cited 9 times.
  doi: 10.1007/s13594-013-0144-3
  
• 
  52

  Sheth, F., De, S.
  Evaluation of comparative antioxidant potential of four cultivars of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. by HPLC-DPPH method
  (2012) Free Radicals and Antioxidants, 2 (4), pp. 73-78. Cited 4 times.
  

  •  
• 
  53

  Shyu, Y.-S., Lin, J.-T., Chang, Y.-T., Chiang, C.-J., Yang, D.-J.

  Evaluation of antioxidant ability of ethanolic extract from dill (Anethum graveolens L.) flower
  (2009) Food Chemistry, 115 (2), pp. 515-521. Cited 54 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.12.039
  
• 
  54

  Siatka, T., Kašparová, M.

  Seasonal variation in total phenolic and flavonoid contents and DPPH scavenging activity of Bellis perennis L. flowers
  (2010) Molecules, 15 (12), pp. 9450-9461. Cited 26 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/15/12/9450/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/molecules15129450
  
• 
  55

  Singh, O., Khanam, Z., Misra, N., Srivastava, M.K.

  Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.): An overview
  (2011) Pharmacognosy Reviews, 5 (9), pp. 82-95. Cited 45 times.
  doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.79103
  
• 
  56

  Siriamornpun, S., Kaisoon, O., Meeso, N.

  Changes in colour, antioxidant activities and carotenoids (lycopene, β-carotene, lutein) of marigold flower (Tagetes erecta L.) resulting from different drying processes
  (2012) Journal of Functional Foods, 4 (4), pp. 757-766. Cited 28 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2012.05.002
  
• 
  57

  Sousa, M.J., Malcata, F.X.

  Advances in the role of a plant coagulant (Cynara cardunculus) in vitro and during ripening of cheeses from several milk species
  (2002) Lait, 82 (2), pp. 151-170. Cited 38 times.
  
• 
  58

  Street, R., Sidana, J., Prinsloo, G.
  Cichorium intybus: traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology
  (2013) Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2013. Cited 2 times.
  579319
  

  •  
• 
  59

  Su, G., Cao, Y., Li, C., Yu, X., Gao, X., Tu, P., Chai, X.

  Phytochemical and pharmacological progress on the genus Syringa
  (2015) Chemistry Central Journal, 9 (1), art. no. 2. Cited 3 times.
  http://www.journal.chemistrycentral.com/home/
  doi: 10.1186/s13065-015-0079-2
  
• 
  60

  Tavaria, F.K., Sousa, M.J., Malcata, F.X.

  Storage and lyophilization effects of extracts of Cynara cardunculus on the degradation of ovine and caprine caseins
  (2001) Food Chemistry, 72 (1), pp. 79-88. Cited 20 times.
  doi: 10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00213-2
  
• 
  61

  Tocmo, R., Liang, D., Lin, Y., Huang, D.
  Chemical and biochemical mechanisms underlying the cardioprotective roles of dietary organopolysulfides
  (2015) Frontiers in Nutrition, 2, pp. 1-18. Cited 3 times.
  February
  

  •  
• 
  62

  Ukiya, M., Akihisa, T., Tokuda, H., Suzuki, H., Mukainaka, T., Ichiishi, E., Yasukawa, K., (...), Nishino, H.

  Constituents of Compositae plants: III. Anti-tumor promoting effects and cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell lines of triterpene diols and triols from edible chrysanthemum flowers
  (2002) Cancer Letters, 177 (1), pp. 7-12. Cited 73 times.
  doi: 10.1016/S0304-3835(01)00769-8
  
• 
  63

  Vági, E., Simándi, B., Suhajda, Á., Héthelyi, É.

  Essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Origanum majorana L. extracts obtained with ethyl alcohol and supercritical carbon dioxide
  (2005) Food Research International, 38 (1), pp. 51-57. Cited 80 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2004.07.006
  
• 
  64

  Vlase, L., Benedec, D., Hanganu, D., Damian, G., Csillag, I., Sevastre, B., Mot, A.C., (...), Tilea, I.

  Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and phenolic profile for Hyssopus officinalis, Ocimum basilicum and Teucrium chamaedrys
  (2014) Molecules, 19 (5), pp. 5490-5507. Cited 23 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/19/5/5490/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/molecules19055490
  
• 
  65

  Voon, H.C., Bhat, R., Rusul, G.

  Flower extracts and their essential oils as potential antimicrobial agents for food uses and pharmaceutical applications
  (2012) Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 11 (1), pp. 34-55. Cited 19 times.
  doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00169.x
  
• 
  66

  Vukics, V., Kery, A., Guttman, A.

  Analysis of polar antioxidants in heartsease (Viola tricolor L.) and garden pansy (Viola x wittrockiana Gams.)
  (2008) Journal of Chromatographic Science, 46 (9), pp. 823-827. Cited 11 times.
  http://docstore.ingenta.com/cgi-bin/ds_deliver/1/u/d/ISIS/47122813.1/pres/jcs/2008/00000046/00000009/art00013/B920015D4AB17DA11226687549FC5937C03AC50E9C.pdf?link=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/error/delivery&format=pdf
  
• 
  67

  Wang, M., Tsao, R., Zhang, S., Dong, Z., Yang, R., Gong, J., Pei, Y.

  Antioxidant activity, mutagenicity/anti-mutagenicity, and clastogenicity/anti-clastogenicity of lutein from marigold flowers
  (2006) Food and Chemical Toxicology, 44 (9), pp. 1522-1529. Cited 49 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2006.04.005
  
• 
  68

  Wongwattanasathien, O., Kangsadalampai, K., Tongyonk, L.

  Antimutagenicity of some flowers grown in Thailand
  (2010) Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48 (4), pp. 1045-1051. Cited 30 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.01.018
  
• 
  69

  Yi, Y., Zhang, Q.-W., Li, S.-L., Wang, Y., Ye, W.-C., Zhao, J., Wang, Y.-T.

  Simultaneous quantification of major flavonoids in "bawanghua", the edible flower of Hylocereus undatus using pressurised liquid extraction and high performance liquid chromatography
  (2012) Food Chemistry, 135 (2), pp. 528-533. Cited 10 times.
  doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.010
  
• 
  70

  Yue, S., Tang, Y., Li, S., Duan, J.A.

  Chemical and biological properties of quinochalcone C-glycosides from the florets of carthamus tinctorius
  (2013) Molecules, 18 (12), pp. 15220-15254. Cited 11 times.
  http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/18/12/15220/pdf
  doi: 10.3390/molecules181215220
  
• 
  71

  Ebert, A.W.
  Sprouts, microgreens, and edible flowers: the potential for high value specialty produce in Asia
  (2012) Proceedings of the regional symposium on high value vegetables in Southeast Asia: production, supply and demand (SEAVEG2012)
  Volume: AVRDC - The World Vegetable Center, Publication No. 12-758
  

  •  
• 
  72

  Yasukawa, K.
  Medicinal and edible plants as cancer preventive agents drug discovery research in pharmacognosy
  (2012) InTech
  Vallisuta, O. (Ed.)
  http://www.intech-open.com/books/drug-discovery-research-in-pharmacognosy/medicinal-and-edible-plants-ascancer-preventive-agent
  

  •  
• 
  73

  http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/food-features/Power-petal-Cooking-with-flowers/articleshow/30896002.cms
  

  •  
• 
  74

  http://www.thenibble.com/reviews/main/vegetables/edible-flowers.asp
  

  •  
• 
  75

  http://whatscookingamerica.net/EdibleFlowers/EdibleFlowersMain.htm
  

  •  
• 
  76

  http://community.teleflora.com/how-to-enjoy-edible-flowers/
  

  •  
• 
  77

  http://www.nationalgardeningweek.org.uk/Things-to-do-list/Edible-flowers.aspx
  

  •  
• 
  78

  http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/choosing-and-using-edible-flowers-ag-790.pdf
  

  •  
• 
  79

  http://www.greenmantlenursery.com/2008revision/roses2008/La%20Vie%20en%20Rose.htm
  

  •  

  Nicolau, A.I.; Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Dunarea de Jos, University of Galati, Romania
© Copyright 2016 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.