Biological Flora of the British Isles: Fraxinus excelsior

Journal of EcologyVolume 104, Issue 4, 1 July 2016, Pages 1158-1209

(Article)

• Thomas, P.A.Email Author
 
• View Correspondence (jump link)

• School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Staffordshire, United Kingdom

Abstract View references (650)

This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Fraxinus excelsior L. (Ash) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the Biological Flora of the British Isles: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history, and conservation. Fraxinus excelsior is a large forest tree, native throughout the main islands of Britain and much of mainland Europe. Seedlings are shade tolerant, but adults are not so it tends to be an intermediate successional species, invading gaps in mixed stands rather than forming extensive pure stands. Ash grows on a wide range of soils but is commonest on nutrient-rich soils with a high base status and pH > 4.2, and is at its best on dry calcareous screes and fertile alluvial soils. Fraxinus excelsior is trioecious or subdioecious with male, hermaphrodite and female flowers and trees. Seed production is prolific with periodic higher producing mast years. Seeds are primarily wind-dispersed, but they can float and be moved considerable distances along waterways. Germination is delayed by dormancy until usually the second spring after being shed. Ash is tolerant of drought, but intolerant of spring frosts and so is predicted to fare well under current climate change scenarios, and indeed has recently been expanding in range in Europe. However, ash health and survival is currently seriously compromised by ash dieback caused by the fungus Hymenoscyphus fraxineus (Chalara fraxinea) that has the potential to kill all but a very few resistant trees. Moreover, the emerald ash borer beetle Agrilus planipennis, a serious pest of ash species in N. America, has reached Europe (though not yet the British Isles) and poses an equally if not more serious long-term threat to ash. © 2016 The Authors. Journal of Ecology © 2016 British Ecological Society

Author keywords

• ash dieback
 
• climatic limitation
 
• communities
 
• conservation
 
• ecophysiology
 
• emerald ash borer
 
• geographical and altitudinal distribution
 
• germination
 
• mycorrhiza
 
• reproductive biology
 
• soils

Indexed keywords

Species Index:	Agrilus planipennisChalaraColeopteraFraxinus excelsiorFungiHymenoscyphus

• ISSN: 00220477
• CODEN: JECOA
• Source Type: Journal
• Original language: English

• DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.12566
• Document Type: Article
• Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd

• References (650)

• View in search results format 

• All
 
•     

View all 650 references

1	Abdul-Hamid, H., Mencuccini, M.Age- and size-related changes in physiological characteristics and chemical composition of Acer pseudoplatanus and Fraxinus excelsior trees  (2009) Tree Physiology, 29 (1), pp. 27-38. Cited 12 times. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpn001 View at Publisher
2	Adamčíková, K., Kádasi-Horáková, M., Jankovský, L., Havrdová, L.Identification of Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, the causal agent of ash dieback in Slovakia  (2015) Biologia (Poland), 70 (5), pp. 559-564. Cited 3 times. http://www.springerlink.com/content/0006-3088 doi: 10.1515/biolog-2015-0075 View at Publisher
3	Aksoy, A., Demirezen, D.Fraxinus excelsior as a biomonitor of heavy metal pollution  (2006) Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 15 (1), pp. 27-33. Cited 25 times.
4	Albert, B., Morand-Prieur, M.-E., Brachet, S., Gouyon, P.-H., Frascaria-Lacoste, N., Raquin, C.Sex expression and reproductive biology in a tree species, Fraxinus excelsior L  (2013) Comptes Rendus - Biologies, 336 (10), pp. 479-485. Cited 2 times. doi: 10.1016/j.crvi.2013.08.004 View at Publisher
5	Alberti, G., Candido, P., Peressotti, A., Turco, S., Piussi, P., Zerbi, G.Aboveground biomass relationships for mixed ash (Fraxinus excelsior L. and Ulmus glabra Hudson) stands in Eastern Prealps of Friuli Venezia Giulia (Italy)  (2005) Annals of Forest Science, 62 (8), pp. 831-836. Cited 19 times. doi: 10.1051/forest:2005089 View at Publisher
6	Alford, D.Pests of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs and Flowers  (2012) Pests of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs and Flowers, p. 480. Cited 8 times. http://www.sciencedirect.com.scopeesprx.elsevier.com/science/book/9780123985156 ISBN: 978-012398515-6 doi: 10.1016/C2011-0-06146-X View at Publisher
7	Allen, A.A. The rarer Sternoxia (Col.) of Windsor Forest (1966) Entomologist's Records, 78, pp. 14-23.
8	Allen, J.R.M., Watts, W.A., Huntley, B.Weichselian palynostratigraphy, palaeovegetation and palaeoenvironment; the record from Lago Grande di Monticchio, southern Italy  (2000) Quaternary International, 73-74, pp. 91-110. Cited 140 times. doi: 10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00067-7 View at Publisher
9	Amar, A., Smith, K.W., Butler, S., Lindsell, J.A., Hewson, C.M., Fuller, R.J., Charman, E.C.Recent patterns of change in vegetation structure and tree composition of British broadleaved woodland: Evidence from large-scale surveys  (2010) Forestry, 83 (4), pp. 345-356. Cited 23 times. doi: 10.1093/forestry/cpq017 View at Publisher
10	Andersson, P.F., Johansson, S.B.K., Stenlid, J., Broberg, A.Isolation, identification and necrotic activity of viridiol from Chalara fraxinea, the fungus responsible for dieback of ash  (2010) Forest Pathology, 40 (1), pp. 43-46. Cited 19 times. doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0329.2009.00605.x View at Publisher
11	Angiolini, C., Foggi, B., Viciani, D.Acer-Fraxinus dominated woods of the Italian peninsula: A floristic and phytogeographical analysis  (2012) Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 81 (2), pp. 123-130. Cited 2 times. https://pbsociety.org.pl/journals/index.php/asbp/article/view/asbp.2011.037/599 doi: 10.5586/asbp.2011.037 View at Publisher
12	Arbellay, E., Fonti, P., Stoffel, M.Duration and extension of anatomical changes in wood structure after cambial injury  (2012) Journal of Experimental Botany, 63 (8), pp. 3271-3277. Cited 42 times. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ers050 View at Publisher
13	Arca, M., Hinsinger, D.D., Cruaud, C., Tillier, A., Bousquet, J., Frascaria-Lacoste, N.Deciduous trees and the application of universal dna barcodes: A case study on the circumpolar fraxinus  (2012) PLoS ONE, 7 (3), art. no. e34089. Cited 24 times. http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObjectAttachment.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0034089&representation=PDF doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034089 View at Publisher
14	Atkinson, C.J., Denne, M.P.Reactivation of vessel production in ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) trees  (1988) Annals of Botany, 61 (6), pp. 679-688. Cited 15 times. View at Publisher
15	Aussenac, G., Lévy, G. Influence du dessèchement du sol sur le comportement hydrique et la croissance du chêne pédonculé (Quercus pedunculata Ehrl.) et du frêne (Fraxinus excelsior L.) cultivés en cases de vegetation (1983) Annales des Sciences Forestières, 40, pp. 251-264. Cited 10 times.
16	Aussenac, G., Lévy, G. Les exigences en eau du frêne (Fraxinus excelsior L.) (1992) Revue Forestière Française, 44, pp. 32-38. Cited 6 times.
17	Aydin-Schmidt, B., Thorsell, W., Wahlgren, M.Carolus linnaeus, the ash, worm-wood and other anti-malarial plants  (2010) Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 42 (11-12), pp. 941-942. Cited 2 times. doi: 10.3109/00365548.2010.513065 View at Publisher
18	Bacles, C.F.E., Burczyk, J., Lowe, A.J., Ennos, R.A.Historical and contemporary mating patterns in remnant populations of the forest tree Fraxinus excelsior L.  (2005) Evolution, 59 (5), pp. 979-990. Cited 99 times.
19	Bacles, C.F.E., Ennos, R.A.Paternity analysis of pollen-mediated gene flow for Fraxinus excelsior L. in a chronically fragmented landscape  (2008) Heredity, 101 (4), pp. 368-380. Cited 62 times. doi: 10.1038/hdy.2008.66 View at Publisher
20	Bacles, C.F.E., Lowe, A.J., Ennos, R.A.Effective seed dispersal across a fragmented landscape  (2006) Science, 311 (5761), p. 628. Cited 133 times. doi: 10.1126/science.1121543 View at Publisher
21	Bai, N., He, K., Ibarra, A., Bily, A., Roller, M., Chen, X., Rühl, R.Iridoids from Fraxinus excelsior with adipocyte differentiation-inhibitory and PPARα activation activity  (2010) Journal of Natural Products, 73 (1), pp. 2-6. Cited 31 times. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1021/np9003118 doi: 10.1021/np9003118 View at Publisher
22	Bakys, R., Vasaitis, R., Barklund, P., Thomsen, I.M., Stenlid, J.Occurrence and pathogenicity of fungi in necrotic and non-symptomatic shoots of declining common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) in Sweden  (2009) European Journal of Forest Research, 128 (1), pp. 51-60. Cited 66 times. doi: 10.1007/s10342-008-0238-2 View at Publisher
23	Bakys, R., Vasaitis, R., Barklund, P., Ihrmark, K., Stenlid, J.Investigations concerning the role of chalara fraxinea in declining fraxinus excelsior  (2009) Plant Pathology, 58 (2), pp. 284-292. Cited 87 times. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3059.2008.01977.x View at Publisher
24	Bakys, R., Vasaitis, R., Skovsgaard, J.P.Patterns and severity of crown dieback in young even-aged stands of european ash (fraxinus excelsior l.) in relation to stand density, bud flushing phenotype, and season  (2013) Plant Protection Science, 49 (3), pp. 120-126. Cited 12 times. http://agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/94542.pdf
25	Bakys, R., Vasiliauskas, A., Ihrmark, K., Stenlid, J., Menkis, A., Vasaitis, R.Root rot, associated fungi and their impact on health condition of declining fraxinus excelsior stands in Lithuania  (2011) Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 26 (2), pp. 128-135. Cited 22 times. doi: 10.1080/02827581.2010.536569 View at Publisher
26	Balandier, P., Dupraz, C.Growth of widely spaced trees. A case study from young agroforestry plantations in france  (1998) Agroforestry Systems, 43 (1-3), pp. 151-167. Cited 31 times. View at Publisher
27	Balandier, P., Marquier, A. Vers une remise en question des avantages d'une plantation frêne – aulne (1998) Revue Forestière Française, 50, pp. 231-243.
28	Baliuckas, V., Ekberg, I., Eriksson, G., Norell, L.Genetic variation among and within populations of four Swedish hardwood species assessed in a nursery trial  (1999) Silvae Genetica, 48 (1), pp. 17-25. Cited 20 times.
29	Ballach, H.-J., Wittig, R., Wulff, S.Twenty-five years of biomonitoring lead in the Frankfurt/Main area  (2002) Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 9 (2), pp. 136-142. Cited 17 times. View at Publisher
30	Bamford, K.F., Van Rest, E.D. The relationship between chemical composition and mechanical strength in the wood of English ash (Fraxinus excelsior Linn.) (1936) Biochemical Journal, 30, pp. 1849-1854.
31	Baral, H.-O., Bemmann, M.Hymenoscyphus fraxineus vs. Hymenoscyphus albidus – A comparative light microscopic study on the causal agent of European ash dieback and related foliicolous, stroma-forming species  (2014) Mycology, 5 (4), pp. 228-290. Cited 22 times. http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tmyc20/current doi: 10.1080/21501203.2014.963720 View at Publisher
32	Baral, H.-O., Queloz, V., Hosoya, T.Hymenoscyphus fraxineus, the correct scientific name for the fungus causing ash dieback in Europe  (2014) IMA Fungus, 5 (1), pp. 79-80. Cited 41 times. http://www.imafungus.org/Issue/51/16.pdf doi: 10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.01.09 View at Publisher
33	Baranchikov, Y., Mozolevskaya, E., Yurchenko, G., Kenis, M.Occurrence of the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis in Russia and its potential impact on European forestry  (2008) EPPO Bulletin, 38 (2), pp. 233-238. Cited 41 times. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2338.2008.01210.x View at Publisher
34	Barigah, T.S., Ibrahim, T., Bogard, A., Faivre-Vuillin, B., Lagneau, L.A., Montpied, P., Dreyer, E.Irradiance-induced plasticity in the hydraulic properties of saplings of different temperate broad-leaved forest tree species  (2006) Tree Physiology, 26 (12), pp. 1505-1516. Cited 38 times. View at Publisher
35	Barrington, R.M., Vowell, R.P. Report on the Flora of Ben Bulben and the adjoining mountain range in Sligo and Leitrim (1884) Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Science, 4, pp. 493-517. –1888)
36	Barthod, S., Cerovic, Z., Epron, D.Can dual chlorophyll fluorescence excitation be used to assess the variation in the content of UV-absorbing phenolic compounds in leaves of temperate tree species along a light gradient?  (2007) Journal of Experimental Botany, 58 (7), pp. 1753-1760. Cited 21 times. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erm030 View at Publisher
37	Barthod, S., Epron, D.Variations of construction cost associated to leaf area renewal in saplings of two co-occurring temperate tree species (Acer platanoides L. and Fraxinus excelsior L.) along a light gradient  (2005) Annals of Forest Science, 62 (6), pp. 545-551. Cited 15 times. doi: 10.1051/forest:2005047 View at Publisher
38	Bates, J.W.Influence of chemical and physical factors on Quercus and Fraxinus epiphytes at Loch Sunart, western Scotland: a multivariate analysis  (1992) Journal of Ecology, 80 (1), pp. 163-179. Cited 70 times. View at Publisher
39	Bates, J.W., Brown, D.H.Epiphyte differentiation between Quercus petraea and Fraxinus excelsior trees in a maritime area of South West England  (1981) Vegetatio, 48 (1), pp. 61-70. Cited 47 times. doi: 10.1007/BF00117362 View at Publisher
40	Beatty, G.E., Brown, J.A., Cassidy, E.M., Finlay, C.M.V., McKendrick, L., Montgomery, W.I., Reid, N., (...), Provan, J.Lack of genetic structure and evidence for long-distance dispersal in ash (Fraxinus excelsior) populations under threat from an emergent fungal pathogen: implications for restorative planting  (2015) Tree Genetics and Genomes, 11 (3), p. 13. Cited 8 times. http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,5-10036-70-33990522-0,00.html doi: 10.1007/s11295-015-0879-5 View at Publisher
41	(1919) Science and Fruit Growing. Cited 8 times. Bedford, the Duke of & Pickering, S.U., Macmillan, London, UK
42	Bell, S., McLoughlin, J., Reeg, T., Gavaland, A., Muehlthaler, U., Makinen, K. Cultural Aspects of the Trees in Selected European Countries (2008) VALBRO, COST E42, Valuable Broadleaved Tree Species in Europe COST, Brussels, Belgium, (accessed 8 October 2015) http://bibliotecadigital.ipb.pt/handle/10198/3913
43	Bengtsson, S.B.K., Barklund, P., Von Brömssen, C., Stenlid, J.Seasonal pattern of lesion development in diseased Fraxinus excelsior infected by Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus  (2014) PLoS ONE, 9 (4), art. no. e76429. Cited 9 times. http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0076429&representation=PDF doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076429 View at Publisher
44	Bengtsson, S.B.K., Vasaitis, R., Kirisits, T., Solheim, H., Stenlid, J.Population structure of Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus and its genetic relationship to Hymenoscyphus albidus  (2012) Fungal Ecology, 5 (2), pp. 147-153. Cited 44 times. doi: 10.1016/j.funeco.2011.10.004 View at Publisher
45	Bengtsson, V., Stenström, A., Finsberg, C. The impact of ash dieback on veteran and pollarded trees in Sweden (2013) Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 107, pp. 27-33.
46	Bennett, K.D., Boreham, S., Sharp, M.J., Switsur, V.R.Holocene history of environment, vegetation and human settlement on Catta Ness, Lunnasting, Shetland  (1992) Journal of Ecology, 80 (2), pp. 241-273. Cited 109 times. View at Publisher
47	Bergqvist, G., Bergström, R., Wallgren, M.Browsing by large herbivores on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) seedlings in mixture with ash (Fraxinus excelsior) or silver birch (Betula pendula)  (2012) Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 27 (4), pp. 372-378. Cited 5 times. doi: 10.1080/02827581.2011.635155 View at Publisher
48	Berveiller, D., Kierzkowski, D., Damesin, C.Interspecific variability of stem photosynthesis among tree species  (2007) Tree Physiology, 27 (1), pp. 53-61. Cited 40 times. View at Publisher
49	Besnard, G., Carlier, G. Potentiel hydrique et conductance stomatique des feuilles de frêne (Fraxinus excelsior L.) dans une forêt alluviale du Haut-Rhône français (1990) Annals of Forest Science, 47, pp. 353-365.
50	Bettiati, D., Petit, G., Anfodillo, T.Testing the equi-resistance principle of the xylem transport system in a small ash tree: Empirical support from anatomical analyses  (2012) Tree Physiology, 32 (2), pp. 171-177. Cited 13 times. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpr137 View at Publisher
51	Beyer, F., Hertel, D., Jung, K., Fender, A.-C., Leuschner, C.Competition effects on fine root survival of Fagus sylvatica and Fraxinus excelsior  (2013) Forest Ecology and Management, 302, pp. 14-22. Cited 12 times. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.03.020 View at Publisher
52	Binggeli, P., Power, A.J. Gender variation in ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) (1991) Miscellaneous Notes and Reports in Natural History, Ecology, Conservation and Resources Management. Cited 2 times. (Accessed 08 October 2015) http://www.mikepalmer.co.uk/woodyplantecology/docs/MNR-ashgender.pdf
53	Binney, H.A., Waller, M.P., Bunting, M.J., Armitage, R.A.The interpretation of fen carr pollen diagrams: The representation of the dry land vegetation  (2005) Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 134 (3-4), pp. 197-218. Cited 14 times. doi: 10.1016/j.revpalbo.2004.12.006 View at Publisher
54	Bittner, S., Janott, M., Ritter, D., Köcher, P., Beese, F., Priesack, E.Functional-structural water flow model reveals differences between diffuse- and ring-porous tree species  (2012) Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 158-159, pp. 80-89. Cited 12 times. doi: 10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.02.005 View at Publisher
55	Bjørnlund, L., Christensen, S.How does litter quality and site heterogeneity interact on decomposer food webs of a semi-natural forest?  (2005) Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 37 (2), pp. 203-213. Cited 19 times. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2004.07.030 View at Publisher
56	Blackstock, T.H. Synchronised variation in fruit production in Fraxinus excelsior (Ash) (2013) Botanical Society of the British Isles News, 123, pp. 15-16.
57	Blake, P.S., Taylor, J.M., Finch-Savage, W.E.Identification of abscisic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, jasmonic acid, indole-3-acetonitrile, methyl jasmonate and gibberellins in developing, dormant and stratified seeds of ash (Fraxinus excelsior) (2002) Plant Growth Regulation, 37 (2), pp. 119-125. Cited 19 times. doi: 10.1023/A:1020504610172 View at Publisher
58	Bloor, J.M.G., Barthes, L., Leadley, P.W.Effects of elevated CO2 and N on tree-grass interactions: An experimental test using Fraxinus excelsior and Dactylis glomerata  (2008) Functional Ecology, 22 (3), pp. 537-546. Cited 14 times. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01390.x View at Publisher
59	Bloor, J.M.G., Leadley, P.W., Barthes, L.Responses of Fraxinus excelsior seedlings to grass-induced above- and below-ground competition  (2008) Plant Ecology, 194 (2), pp. 293-304. Cited 20 times. doi: 10.1007/s11258-007-9292-y View at Publisher
60	Blujdea, V.N.B., Pilli, R., Dutca, I., Ciuvat, L., Abrudan, I.V.Allometric biomass equations for young broadleaved trees in plantations in Romania  (2012) Forest Ecology and Management, 264, pp. 172-184. Cited 27 times. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2011.09.042 View at Publisher
61	Bochenek, G.M., Eriksen, B.Annual growth of male and female individuals of the common ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.)  (2010) Plant Ecology and Diversity, 3 (1), pp. 47-57. Cited 6 times. doi: 10.1080/17550874.2010.490278 View at Publisher
62	Bochenek, G.M., Eriksen, B.First come, first served: Delayed fertilization does not enhance pollen competition in a wind-pollinated tree, Fraxinus excelsior L. (oleaceae)  (2011) International Journal of Plant Sciences, 172 (1), pp. 60-69. Cited 6 times. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/10.1086/657298.pdf?acceptTC=true doi: 10.1086/657298 View at Publisher
63	Boddy, L., Gibbon, O.M., Grundy, M.A.Ecology of Daldinia concentrica: effect of abiotic variables on mycelial extension and interspecific interactions.  (1985) Transactions - British Mycological Society, 85 (2), pp. 201-211. Cited 44 times. View at Publisher
64	Bogenrieder, A., Klein, R. Does solar UV influence the competitive relationship in higher plants? (1982) The Role of Solar Ultraviolet Radiation in Marine Ecosystems, pp. 54-71. Cited 41 times. (ed., J. Calkins, Plenum Press, New York, NY, USA
65	Boodle, L.A. Abnormal phyllotaxy in the ash (1915) Annals of Botany, 24, pp. 307-308.
66	Borowski, S., Krasiński, Z., Miłkowski, L. Food and role of the European bison in Forest Ecosystems (1967) Acta Theriologica, 12, pp. 367-376.
67	Borowski, Z.Damage caused by rodents in Polish forests  (2007) International Journal of Pest Management, 53 (4), pp. 303-310. Cited 12 times. doi: 10.1080/09670870701497253 View at Publisher
68	Boshier, D., Stewart, J.How local is local? Identifying the scale of adaptive variation in ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.): Results from the nursery  (2005) Forestry, 78 (2), pp. 135-143. Cited 13 times. doi: 10.1093/forestry/cpi013 View at Publisher
69	Bourne, R.Neglect of natural regeneration  (1945) Forestry, 19 (1), pp. 33-40. Cited 6 times. doi: 10.1093/forestry/19.1.33 View at Publisher
70	Braun-Blanquet, J., Tuxen, R. Irische Pflanzengesellschaften (1952) Die Pflanzenwelt Irlands, 25. Cited 54 times. (ed., W. Lüdi, Hans Huber, Bern, Veröffentlichungen des geobotanischen Institutes Rübel in Zürich, 224–415
71	Breuste, J.H.Investigations of the urban street tree forest of Mendoza, Argentina  (2013) Urban Ecosystems, 16 (4), pp. 801-818. Cited 7 times. doi: 10.1007/s11252-012-0255-2 View at Publisher
72	Brewer, S. (2002) Recolonisation postglaciaire de quelques taxons tempérés en Europe: une approche spatiale et temporelle. Cited 19 times. PhD thesis, Institut Méditerranéen d'Ecologie et de Paléoécologie, Marseille, France
73	(2015)  (Accessed 8 October 2015) http://www.ashgenome.org/
74	(2016) Fungal Records Database (Accessed 12 January 2016) http://www.fieldmycology.net/frdbi/frdbi.asp
75	Broadmeadow, M., Ray, D. Climate Change and British Woodland (2005) Forestry Commission Information Note 69. Cited 3 times. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh, UK
76	Broadmeadow, M.S.J., Jackson, S.B.Growth responses of Quercus petraea, Fraxinus excelsior and Pinus sylvestris to elevated carbon dioxide, ozone and water supply  (2000) New Phytologist, 146 (3), pp. 437-451. Cited 75 times. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00665.x View at Publisher
77	Broadmeadow, M.S.J., Ray, D., Samuel, C.J.A.Climate change and the future for broadleaved tree species in Britain  (2005) Forestry, 78 (2), pp. 145-161. Cited 79 times. doi: 10.1093/forestry/cpi014 View at Publisher
78	Brooks, F.T. (1953) Plant Diseases. Cited 21 times. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
79	Broström, A., Nielsen, A.B., Gaillard, M.-J., Hjelle, K., Mazier, F., Binney, H., Bunting, J., (...), Sugita, S.Pollen productivity estimates of key European plant taxa for quantitative reconstruction of past vegetation: A review  (2008) Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17 (5), pp. 461-478. Cited 138 times. doi: 10.1007/s00334-008-0148-8 View at Publisher
80	Brotherton, D.I. The Management of a Woodland Nature Reserve With Particular Reference to the Cohabitation of Tree Species (1973) Discussion Paper in Conservation 6 University College London, London, UK

  Thomas, P.A.; School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Staffordshire, United Kingdom; email:p.a.thomas@keele.ac.uk 
© Copyright 2016 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.