Abstract
The
littoral site of Ifri Oudadane is one of the most important recently
excavated sites in the Mediterranean Maghreb. The shelter presents
Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic layers and therefore offers the
possibility to investigate the Neolithic transition in the region.
Besides introducing the archaeological context, this paper focuses on
palaeobotanical data in order to reconstruct Holocene environmental
change and human use of plant resources for the period c. 11 to 5.7 ka
cal. BP. Results show intense landscape transformations resulting from
anthropic and climatic factors. First human occupations start at the
beginning of the Holocene with favourable conditions in this otherwise
harsh semi-arid stretch of land. A wooded environment with evergreen
sclerophyllous oaks and riparian forests is documented and exploited by
hunter-gatherers. From c. 7.6 ka cal. BP farming activities are well
attested together with significant human impact, herding pressure and a
progressive decline of arboreal components. After 6.6 ka cal. BP
conditions become less favourable and markers for aridity increase.
Riparian taxa disappear (Alnus) or decrease (Fraxinus, Populus, Salix); shrubs (Tamarix) and grasses (Artemisia)
increase with a degradation of forest into shrubland (macchia). During
6.6 and 6.0 ka cal. BP there is a general occupation gap in arid and
semi-arid Morocco and evidence for that change is also found in the
alluvial deposits of the Moulouya, NE Morocco. Indicators for food
production decrease at the same time and the site is abandoned during
the first half of the 6th millennium cal. BP.
References
| Allen HD (1996) Mediterranean environments. In: Adams WM, Goudie AS, Orme AR (eds) The Physical Geography of Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 307–325. Google Scholar | |
| Ammerman AJ, Cavalli-Sforza LL (1973) A population model for the diffusion of early farming in Europe. In: Renfrew C (ed.) The Explanation in Culture Change: Models in Prehistory. London: Duckworth, pp. 343–357. Google Scholar | |
| Angelucci DE, Boschian G, Fontanals M, . (2009) Shepherds and karst: The use of caves and rock-shelters in the Mediterranean region during the Neolithic. World Archaeology 41(2): 191–214. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Asouti E, Austin P (2005) Reconstructing woodland vegetation and its exploitation by past societies, based on the analysis and interpretation of archaeological wood charcoal macro-remains. Environmental Archaeology 10(1): 1–18. Google Scholar | |
| Badal E, Bernabeu J, Vernet JL (1994) Vegetation changes and human action from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000–4000 B.P.) in Alicante, Spain, based on charcoal analysis. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 3: 155–166. Google Scholar | |
| Ballouche A, Marnival P (2003) Données palynologiques et carpologiques su la domestication des plantes et l’agriculture dans le Néolithique ancien dans le Maroc septentrional (site de Kaf Taht el-Ghar). Revue d’Archéométrie 27: 49–54. Google Scholar | |
| Ballouche A, Marnival P (2004) At the origin of agriculture in the Maghreb. Palynological and carpological data on the early Neolithic of Northern Morocco. Acts of the XIth Congress of PanAfrican Association, Bamako 7: 74–82. Google Scholar | |
| Barathon JJ, El Abassi H, Lechevalier C, . (2000) Mise au point sur les formations holocènes dans le Rif oriental (Maroc). Géomorphologie: relief, processus, environnement 4: 221–238. Google Scholar | |
| Behre KE (1981) The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Pollen et Spores 23: 225–245. Google Scholar | |
| Benabid A (1984) Étude phytosociologique des peuplements foréstiers et préforéstiers du Rif centro-occidental (Maroc). Travaux de l’Institut Scientifique Série Botanique 34: 1–64. Google Scholar | |
| Benabid A (2000) Flore et écosystèmes du Maroc. Paris: Ibis Press. Google Scholar | |
| Benabid A, Fennane M (1994) Connaissances sur la végétation du Maroc: Phytogéographie, phytosociologie et séries de végétation. Lazaroa 14: 21–97. Google Scholar | |
| Berger JF, Guilaine J (2009) The 8200 cal BP abrupt environmental change and the Neolithic transition: A Mediterranean perspective. Quaternary International 200: 31–49. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Bernabeu J, Gómez O, Molina L, . (2011) La Cerámica Neolítica Durante el VI Milenio cal AC en el mediterráneo central peninsular. In: Bernabeu J, Rojo MA, Molina L (eds) Las primeras producciones cerámicas: El VI milenio cal AC en la Península Ibérica. Saguntum Extra 12: 153–179. Google Scholar | |
| Beug HJ (2004) Leitfaden der Pollenbestimmung für Mittleleuropa und angrenzende Gebeite. Stuttgart: Gustav Fisher Verlag. Google Scholar | |
| Binder D, Clop X, Convertini F, . (2010) Les productions céramiques du Néolithique ancien entre Provence et Catalogne. In: Manen C, Convertini F, Binder D, . (eds) Premières sociétés paysannes de Méditerranée occidentale. Structures des productions céramiques. Séance de la Société Préhistorique Française. Mémoire de la Société Préhistorique Française 51: 115–129. Google Scholar | |
| Birks H, Birks HJB (2000) Future uses of pollen analysis must include plant macrofossils. Journal of Biogeography 27: 31–35. Google Scholar | |
| Bottema S (1975) The interpretation of pollen spectra from prehistoric settlements (with special attention to liguliflorae). Palaeohistoria 17: 17–35. Google Scholar | |
| Burjachs F, López-Sáez JA, Iriarte MJ (2003) Metodología Arqueopalinológica. In: Buxó R, Piqué R (eds) La recogida de muestras en Arqueobotánica: objetivos y propuestas metodológicas. La gestión de los recursos vegetales y la transformación del paleopaisaje en el Mediterráneo occidental. Barcelona: Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, pp. 11–18. Google Scholar | |
| Cacho I, Grimalt JO, Canals M, . (2001) Variability of the western Mediterranean Sea surface temperature during the last 25,000 years and its connection with northern hemisphere climatic changes. Paleooceanography 16: 40–52. Google Scholar | |
| Carrión JS (1992) Late Quaternary pollen sequence from Carihuela Cave, southeastern Spain. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 71: 37–77. Google Scholar | |
| Carrión JS, Fernández S, Jiménez-Moreno G, . (2010) The historical origins of aridity and vegetation degradation in southeastern Spain. Journal of Arid Environments 74: 731–736. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Carrión JS, Munuera M, Dupré M, . (2001) Abrupt vegetation changes in the Segura Mountains of southern Spain throughout the Holocene. Journal of Ecology 89: 783–797. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Carrión JS, Sánchez-Gómez P, Mota JF, . (2003) Holocene vegetation dynamics, fire and grazing in the Sierra de Gádor, southern Spain. The Holocene 13: 839–849. Google Scholar Abstract | |
| Carrión JS, Yll EI, Willis KJ, . (2004) Holocene forest history of the eastern plateaux in the Segura Mountains (Murcia, southeastern Spain). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 132: 219–236. Google Scholar | |
| Carvalho Faustino A (2010) La passage vers l’Atlantique: Le processus de néolithisation en Algarve (sud du Portugal). L’Anthropologie 114: 141–178. Google Scholar | |
| Chabal L (1997) Forêts et sociétés en Languedoc (Néolithique final, Antiquité tardive). L’anthracologie, méthode et paléoécologie. Documents d’Archéologie Française no 63. París: Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme. Google Scholar | |
| Charco J (1999) El bosque mediterráneo en el Norte de África. Biodiversidad y lucha contra la desertificación. Madrid: AECI. Google Scholar | |
| Charco J (2001) Guía de los árboles y arbustos del norte de África: Claves de determinación, descripciones, ilustraciones y mapas de distribución. Madrid: AECI. Google Scholar | |
| Claessens H (2003) The alder populations of Europe. Forestry Commission Bulletin 126: 5–14. Google Scholar | |
| Claessens H, Oosterbaan A, Savill P, . (2010) A review of the characteristics of black alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaernt.) and their implications for silvicultural practices. Forestry 83: 163–175. Google Scholar | |
| Combourieu Nebout N, Londeix L, Baudin F, . (1999) Quaternary marine and continental paleoenvironments in the western mediterranean (Site 976, Alboran Sea): Palynological evidence. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 161: 457–468. Google Scholar | |
| Combourieu Nebout N, Peyron O, Dormoy I, . (2009) Rapid climatic variability in the west Mediterranean during the last 25000 years from high resolution pollen data. Climate of the Past 5: 503–521. Google Scholar | |
| Cortés M, Jiménez FJ, Simón MD, . (2012) The Mesolithic–Neolithic transition in southern Iberia. Quaternary Research 77: 221–234. Google Scholar | |
| Ennabili A, Gharnit N (2003) Checklist and diversity of werland flora (Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta) from the Mediterranean Morocco. Lagascalia 23: 7–25. Google Scholar | |
| García P, Aura JE, Jordá JF (2011) La cerámica decorada del Neolítico Antiguo de la Cueva de Nerja (Málaga, Espana): La sala del vestíbulo. In: Bernabeu J, Rojo MA, Molina L (eds) Las primeras producciones cerámicas: el VI milenio cal AC en la Penínula Ibérica. València. Saguntum Extra 12: 217–232. Google Scholar | |
| Gill C (1970) The flooding tolerance of woody species – A review. Forestry Abstracts 34: 671–678. Google Scholar | |
| Goeury C, de Beaulieu JL (1979) À propos de la concentration du pollen à l’aide de la liqueur de Thoulet dans le sédiments minéraux. Pollen and Spores 21: 239–251. Google Scholar | |
| Grimm EC (1992) Tilia, Version 2. Springfield: Illinois State Museum, Research and Collection Center. Google Scholar | |
| Grimm EC (2004) TGView. Springfield: Illinois State Museum. Google Scholar | |
| Heinz C (1990) Dynamique des végétations holocènes en Méditerranée Nord-occidentale d’après l’anthracoanalyse de sites préhistoriques: Méthodologie et paléoécologie. Paléobiologie continentale XVI(2): 1–212. Google Scholar | |
| Holmes JA (2008) How the Sahara became dry. Science 320: 752–753. Google Scholar | |
| Ibouhouten H, Zielhofer C, Mahjoubi R, . (2010) Archives alluviales holocènes et occupation humaine en Basse Moulouya (Maroc nord-oriental). Géomorphologie–relief, processus, environnement 1/2010: 41–56. Google Scholar | |
| Kajba D, Gracan J (2003) EUFORGEN Technical Guidelines for Genetic Conservation and Use for Black Alder (Alnus glutinosa). Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute. Google Scholar | |
| Linstädter A, Zielhofer C (2010) Regional fire history shows abrupt responses of Mediterranean ecosystems to centennial-scale climate change (Olea-Pistacia woodlands, NE Morocco) Journal of Arid Environments 74: 101–110. Google Scholar | |
| Linstädter J (2008) The Epipalaeolithic–Neolithic–Transition in the Mediterranean region of Northwest-Africa. Quartär 55: 41–62. Google Scholar | |
| Linstädter J, Kehl M (2012) The Holocene archaeological sequence and site formation processes at Ifri Oudadane, NE Morocco. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 3306–3323. Google Scholar | |
| Linstädter J, Müller-Sigmund H (2012) Abiotic raw material supply in the Neolithic of the Eastern Rif, Morocco. A preliminary report. Proceedings of the International Conference ‘Networks in the Neolithic. Raw Materials, Products and Ideas Circulation in the Western Mediterranean Basin (VII–III A.C.)’. 2011, Barcelona, pp. 467–471. Google Scholar | |
| Linstädter J, Aschrafi M, Ibouhouten H, . (2012) Flussarchäologie der Moulouya-Hochflutebene, NO-Marokko. Madrider Mitteilungen 53: 1–84. Google Scholar | |
| Linstädter J, Medved I, Solich M, . (2012) Towards a comprehensive model of the Neolithisation process in the Western Mediterranean. Reply to: Aziz Ballouche, Brahim Ouchaou & Abdelaziz El Idrissi: More on Neolithisation process within the Alboran territory. Quaternary International 274: 177–178. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, López-Merino L (2005) Precisiones metodológicas acerca de los indicios paleopalinológicos de agricultura en la Prehistoria de la Península Ibérica. Portugalia 26: 53–64. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, López-Merino L (2007) Coprophilous fungi as a source of information of anthropic activities during the Prehistory in the Amblés Valley (Ávila, Spain): The archaeopalynological record. Revista Española de Micropaleontología 39: 103–116. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, López-Merino L (2008) Antropización y neolitización durante el Holoceno en Marruecos: Una aproximación paleopalinológica. In: Hernández Pérez MS, Soler Díaz JA, López Padilla JA (eds) Actas IV Congreso del Neolítico Peninsular. Tomo I Alicante: Diputación de Alicante, Museo Arqueológico de Alicante, pp. 438–444. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, López-García P, Burjachs F (2003) Arqueopalinología: Síntesis crítica. Polen 12: 5–35. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, López García P, López-Merino L (2010) Paleoambiente de las Islas Chafarinas durante el Neolítico antiguo: Análisis polínicos en el yacimiento arqueológico de Zafrín (Isla de Congreso). In: Rojo M, Garrido R, Bellver JA, . (eds) Zafrín. Un asentamiento del Neolítico antiguo en las Islas Chafarinas (Norte de África, España). Studia Archaeologica, 96. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, pp. 165–175. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, López-Merino L, Pérez S, . (2011) Paleopaisajes de Andalucía Oriental durante la transición Mesolítico-Neolítico antiguo. In: Gibaja JF, Carvalho AF (eds) Os últimos caçadores-recolectores e as primeiras comunidades produtoras do sul da Península Ibérica e do norte de Marrocos. Promontoria Monográfica 15: 213–220. Google Scholar | |
| López-Sáez JA, van Geel B, Farbos-Texier S, . (1998) Remarques paléoécologiques à propos de quelques palynomorphes non-polliniques provenant de sédiments quaternaires en France. Revue de Paléobiologie 17: 445–459. Google Scholar | |
| Manen C, Marchand G, Carvalho AF (2007) Le Néolithique ancien de la péninsule Ibérique: Vers une nouvelle évaluation du mirage africain? Actes du XXVIe congrès préhistorique de France–Avignon 2004: 133–151. Google Scholar | |
| Manen C, Sénépart I, Binder D (2010) Les productions céramiques des groups cardiaux et épicardiaux du Sud de la France: Zoom régional. In: Manen C, Convertini F, Binder D, . (eds) Premières sociétés paysannes de Méditerranée occidentale. Structures des productions céramiques. Séance de la Société Préhistorique Française. Mémoire de la Société préhistorique française 51, pp. 191–196 Google Scholar | |
| Molero J, Montserrat JM (2006) Novedades corológicas y taxonómicas selectas para el catálogo de la flora vascular del norte de Marruecos. Lagascalia 26: 83–110. Google Scholar | |
| Moore PD, Webb JA, Collinson ME (1991) Pollen Analysis. 2nd Edition. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications. Google Scholar | |
| Morales J, Pérez-Jordà G, Peña-Chocarro L, . (2013) The origins of agriculture in North-West Africa: Macro-botanical remains from Epipalaeolithic and early Neolithic levels of Ifri Oudadane (Morocco). Journal of Archaeological Science 40: 2659–2669. Google Scholar | |
| Navarro C, Carrión JS, Munuera M, . (2001) Cave surface pollen and the palynological potential of karstic cave sediments in palaeocology. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 117: 245–265. Google Scholar | |
| Navarro C, Carrión JS, Navarro J, . (2000) An experimental approach to the palynology of cave deposits. Journal of Quaternary Science 15(6): 603–619. Google Scholar | |
| Nelle O, Dreibrodt S, Dannath Y (2010) Combining pollen and charcoal: Evaluating Holocene vegetation composition and dynamics. Journal of Archaeological Science 37: 2126–2135. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Neumann K, Schoch W, Détienne P, . (2001) Woods of the Sahara and the Sahel. An Anatomical Atlas. Bern, Stuttgart, Wien: Eidg. Forschungsanstalt WSL. Google Scholar | |
| Ngadi M (1995) Précipitations et écoulement dans le bassin-versant de la Moulouya (Maroc). Thèse de doctorat, université Montpellier 3, 333 pp. Google Scholar | |
| Prada MA, Arizpe D (2008) Riparian Tree and Shrub Propagation Handbook. An Aid to Riverine Restoration in the Mediterranean Region. Valencia: Generalitat Valenciana. Google Scholar | |
| Ramos J, Bernal D, Domínguez-Bella S, . (2007) El abrigo de Benzú (Ceuta): Frecuentaciones humanas de un yacimiento con tecnología de modo 3 en el norte de África. Zephyrus 60: 27–41. Google Scholar | |
| Reille M (1992) Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord. Marseille: Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie. Google Scholar | |
| Reille M (1995) Pollen et Spores d’Europe et d’Afrique du Nord. Supplement 1. Marseille: Laboratoire de Botanique Historique et Palynologie. Google Scholar | |
| Rodrigo-Gámiz M, Martínez-Ruiz F, Jiménez-Espejo FJ, . (2011) Impact of climate variability in the western Mediterranean during the last 20,000 years: Oceanic and atmospheric responses. Quaternary Science Reviews 30: 2018–2034. Google Scholar | |
| Roudil JL (1990) Cardial et Néolithique ancien ligure dans le sud-est de la France. In: Cahen D, Otte M (eds) Rubane et Cardial. Liège: Université de Liège (É.R.A.U.L. 39), pp. 383–391. Google Scholar | |
| Sauvage C (1963) Etages bioclimatiques. Atlas du Maroc. Planche No. 6b. Rabat: Comité National de Géographie du Maroc. Google Scholar | |
| Schweingruber FH (1990) Mikroskopische Holzanatomie. Birmensdorf: Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft. Google Scholar | |
| Shackleton CM, Prins F (1992) Charcoal analysis and the ‚principle of least effort‘ – A conceptual model. Journal of Archaeological Science 19: 631–637. Google Scholar | |
| Shipp J, Rosen A, Lubell D (2013) Phytolith evidence of mid-Holocene Capsian subsistence economies in North Africa. The Holocene doi: 10.1177/0959683612472001. Google Scholar Link | |
| Smart TL, Hoffman ES (1988) Environmental interpretation of archaeological charcoal. In: Hastorf CA, Popper VS (eds) Current Paleoethnobotany. Analytical Methods and Cultural Interpretations of Archaeological Plant Remains. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, pp. 167–205. Google Scholar | |
| Thompson GB (1994) Wood charcoals from tropical sites: A contribution to methodology and interpretation. In: Hather JG (ed.) Tropical Archaeobotany. Applications and New Developments. London: Routledge, pp. 9–34. Google Scholar | |
| Théry-Parisot I (2002) Fuel management (bone and wood) during the Lower Aurignacian in the Pataud Rock Shelter (Lower Palaeolithic, Les Eyzies de Tayac, Dordogne, France). Contribution of experimentation. Journal of Archaeological Science 29: 1415–1421. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Théry-Parisot I, Chabal L, Chrzavzez J (2010) Anthracology and taphonomy, from wood gathering to charcoal analysis. A review of the taphonomic processes modifying charcoal assemblages in archaeological contexts. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 291(1–2): 142–153. Google Scholar | |
| Valdés B, Díez MJ, Fernández I (1987) Atlas polínico de Andalucía Occidental. Instituto de Desarrollo Regional no 43. Sevilla: Universidad de Sevilla, Diputación de Cádiz. Google Scholar | |
| Valdés B, Rejdali A, Achhal El, Kadmiri S, . (2002) Catalogue des plantes vasculaires du Nord du Maroc incluant des clés d’identification. Madrid: CSIC. Google Scholar | |
| van Geel B (1978) A palaeoecological study of Holocene peat bog sections in Germany and The Netherlands. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 25: 1–20. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| van Geel B (2001) Non-pollen palynomorphs. In: Smol JP, Birks HJB, Last WM (eds) Tracking Environmental Change Using Lake Sediments. Volume 3: Terrestrial, Algal, and Siliceous Indicators. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 99–119. Google Scholar | |
| van Geel B, Buurma J, Brinkkemper O, . (2003) Environmental reconstruction of a Roman Period settlement site in Uitgeest (The Netherlands), with special reference to coprophilous fungi. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 873–883. Google Scholar CrossRef | |
| Vernet J-L, Ogereau P, Figueiral I, . (2001) Guide d’identification des charbons de bois préhistoriques et récents. Paris: CNRS Éditions. Google Scholar | |
| Wengler L, Vernet JL (1992) Vegetation, sedimentary deposits and climates during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene in eastern Morocco. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 94: 141–167. Google Scholar | |
| Zapata L (2012) Holocene wood charcoal from El Mirón Cave: Vegetation and wood-use. In: Straus LG, González Morales M (eds) El Mirón Cave, Cantabrian Spain. The Site and its Holocene Archaeological Record. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, pp. 174–196. Google Scholar | |
| Zapata L, Peña-Chocarro L, Ibáñez JJ, . (2003) Ethnoarchaeology in the Moroccan Jebala (Western Rif): Wood and dung as fuel. In: Neumann K, Butler A, Kahlheber S (eds) Food, Fuels and Fields – Progress in African Archaeobotany. Africa Praehistorica 15. Köln: Heinrich-Barth-Institut, pp. 163–175. Google Scholar | |
| Zielhofer C, Bussmann J, Ibouhouten H, . (2010) Flood frequencies reveal Holocene rapid climate changes (Lower Moulouya River, northeastern Morocco). Journal of Quaternary Science 25: 700–714. Google Scholar |
