1.Department of Food Production, Faculty of Food and AgricultureThe University of the West IndiesSt. AugustineTrinidad and Tobago
2.Department of Para-Clinical Sciences, School of Basic Health Sciences, Faculty of Medical SciencesThe University of the West IndiesSt. AugustineTrinidad and Tobago
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis, Moraceae) and Chataigne (A. camansi) for Food Security and Income Generation: The Case of Trinidad and Tobago In 2009, a survey was conducted among 83 breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) and chataigne (A. camansi) farmers in five regions of Trinidad and Tobago, where breadfruit consumption has been stigmatized traditionally, to determine their perception of local consumers’ current attitudes to both crops and their response to this market. Breadfruit and chataigne, respectively, were grown as food for home consumption by 90.1% and 89.3%, for income by 67.9% and 65.3%, and for shading cocoa, the traditional use, by 63.0% and 61.3% of the farmers. Perceived consumer appreciation for these crops was rated as high to very high by 68.6% and 65.1% of farmers for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively; 50.6% and 56% gave similar ratings for consumer demand, while 61.4% and 57.8% thought the demand had increased over the last 10 years. Awareness of preparation methods for the fruits as food, as livestock feed, and for uses of the latex, leaves, and wood was reported. Estimated mean revenue for 2008 was USD 1,153.10 and USD 637.30 per farmer for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively. The results suggest that with increasing domestic demand these crops have become cash crops. Promotion of food and non-food uses will further increase farm incomes and the contribution of breadfruit and chataigne to food and nutrition security in Trinidad and Tobago.
Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis [Parkinson ex F.A. Zorn] Fosberg) has a long-established reputation as a crop for food security. For thousands of years it has been cultivated by the people of Oceania (Zerega et al. 2004), where legends about its origin associate it with food security (Loebel-Fried 2002) and where today it is still a valued staple (Taylor and Tuia 2007). Seedless types were developed from the seeded A. camansi Blanco (kamansi, chataigne, castaña, breadnut) as the early peoples of Oceania migrated eastwards with this food source (Zerega et al. 2004). During the 17th and 18th centuries, European explorers, impressed by the ability of the trees of the seedless breadfruit to provide an accessible and abundant supply of food, distributed it to other parts of the tropics. Chataigne, previously regarded as a seeded breadfruit, was included in these distributions (Powell 1977). Therefore, the distribution of the crop both within and outside of Oceania, most famously in the Caribbean, was associated mainly with food security (Sheridan 1976; Zerega et al. 2004).
The traditional role of breadfruit as a food crop arises largely from its nutritional content and its high productivity. Several studies (Broomes et al. 2009, 2011; Englberger et al. 2007; Golden and Williams 2007; Graham and Negron de Bravo 1981; Jones et al. 2011) have shown that the carbohydrate content of the flour ranges from 61% to 84%, and it is an excellent source of vitamins A and B, minerals including potassium and calcium, important amino acids, essential fatty acids, and dietary fiber. Based on the nutritional content it was dubbed as one of the “super foods” in the Caribbean (Magnus 2005). Yields of 6.7 t/ha in agroforestry systems (Fownes and Raynor 1993) and a potential yield of 50 t/ha in pure stands (Roberts-Nkrumah 1998) compare well with yields of cereal crops. Additionally, the availability of a wide range of cultivars with different bearing seasons can overcome seasonal supplies from a single or a few cultivars that bear fruit at the same time (Jones et al. 2010; Roberts-Nkrumah 2009). As a tree nut, chataigne is also highly nutritious, since 100 g of dried seed contains 13 to 20 g of protein, and it is a good energy source, with 76% carbohydrates but only 6 to 13 g fat (Negron de Bravo et al. 1983; Quijano and Arango 1979). Reported fruit and seed yields were 140 and 59 kg/tree, respectively (Roberts-Nkrumah 2005).
In spite of these positive characteristics, significant decline in the level of consumption of breadfruit has been noted in some Pacific Island countries (Redfern 2007; Taylor and Tuia 2007) and in the Caribbean (Leakey 1977). In Africa and Sri Lanka, breadfruit is minimally consumed, mainly as a last resort when the preferred staples are not available (Gamedoagbao and Bennett-Lartey 2007; Medagoda 2007). These low or declining levels of breadfruit and chataigne consumption are of particular concern since tree population and biodiversity decline might also be occurring (Ragone 2007; Roberts-Nkrumah, 2007). Simultaneously, high dependence on imported food and rising international prices for agricultural commodities have led to unsustainably high food import bills in several countries where locally grown breadfruit can become an important staple.
As underexploited crops, higher levels of consumption are required to improve the commercial attractiveness of production and to increase the contribution of breadfruit and chataigne to food and nutrition security. The Caribbean is an important area to examine their potential, given their status as introduced crops and the greater level of commercialization than elsewhere that exists there. Initially, breadfruit was rejected as a food source (Sheridan 1976) and only gained acceptance during the economically-challenging period from Emancipation to the 1950s, when the annual per capita level of consumption in Jamaica was 50.2 kg (Leakey 1977). The crop has continued to enjoy favor in some countries, while in others its consumption is stigmatized due to its association with slavery and poverty (Roberts-Nkrumah 2007). Similarly, chataigne was rejected, mainly for its seediness, and has never achieved recognition as a food crop in most Caribbean countries. Breadfruit and chataigne exports to foreign markets are based primarily on existing trees growing naturally in gullies, in backyards, as border crops, or in mixtures with other tree crops on small farms (Roberts-Nkrumah 2007). Even with the recent establishment of a few small commercial orchards, the foreign exchange earnings from the relatively small-scale exports are unlikely to impact significantly on food security or income generation by small producers in rural communities. Instead, it is at the level of the local markets that these goals might be better realized.
The checkered history of breadfruit and chataigne in the Caribbean is well reflected in Trinidad and Tobago. This twin-island republic is located in the southern Caribbean (10°2’–11°12’N; 60°30’–61°56’W), with an area of 5,125 sq. km and a population of 1.35 million. In 2011, it ranked 62nd out of 187 countries in the world, with a Human Development Index of 0.760, which placed it among those countries with a high level of human development like most Caribbean countries (UNDP 2011). Traditionally, breadfruit consumption was stigmatized (Roberts-Nkrumah 2007), but a recent study showed positive attitudes by purchasers at local public markets toward this food crop and also that household income did not affect consumption levels (Roberts-Nkrumah and Badrie 2005). Roberts-Nkrumah (2007) also reported that chataigne was appreciated. There is need, therefore, to determine farmers’ awareness and responses to these positive signals from consumers, particularly in terms of the amount of breadfruit and chataigne supplied to the local market. The present study was conducted among farmers in Trinidad and Tobago to investigate their reasons for growing breadfruit and chataigne, perceptions of consumer appreciation and demand for the crops, knowledge about utilization, level of sales, and the contribution of these crops to farm income.
Methodology
In 2009, a survey was conducted among a total of 83 breadfruit and chataigne farmers in Trinidad and Tobago using face-to-face interviews with a pre-tested questionnaire. Farmers were asked about the number of breadfruit and chataigne trees they grew, reasons for growing them, awareness of methods of utilization, perception of consumer appreciation and demand, and sale of the fruits. The survey was conducted in 12 out of 14 municipalities, with the two cities, Port of Spain and San Fernando, being excluded (Fig. 1). In Trinidad, the municipalities were grouped into four regions: North (Diego Martin, San Juan/Laventille, Tunapuna/Piarco and Arima), East (Sangre Grande and Rio Claro), Central (Chaguanas and Couva/Tabaquite/Talparo), and South (Princes Town, Penal/Debe, Siparia and Point Fortin). Based on 830 breadfruit and chataigne farmers recorded during the Trinidad and Tobago Agricultural Census 2004 conducted by the Central Statistical Office, the sample of farmers, stratified by municipality and tree number, was selected randomly. The distribution of farmers among regions was 20.5, 45.8, 9.6, 19.3, and 4.8% in north, east, central, and south Trinidad, and Tobago, respectively. Farmers were grouped into three categories by tree number: small (< 20); medium (20–49), and large (> 50).
Fig. 1
Map of Trinidad and Tobago with municipalities and regions.
IBM SPSS 20 for Windows was used for both descriptive and inferential statistical data analysis. Descriptive methods included the use of graphs and frequency tables for data summary of selected variables. Inferential methods included estimation of proportions, e.g., computing and interpreting confidence intervals, chi-square tests of association, and Analysis of Variance for comparing population means.
Results
Demographics of Farmers
The ages of the 83 farmers ranged from 30 to 86 years (mean = 55.5 ± 12.6 years). Most of the farmers (55%) were 41 to 60 years old, and (32.5%) were over 60 years old. Farmers of East Indian descent comprised 54% of the sample, and the others were of African, Venezuelan, or mixed descent. The total area under cultivation varied from 0.6 to 28 ha (mean = 5.4 ± 5.1 ha), with most farmers (65%) cultivating not more than 5 ha. Tree number per farm ranged from 1 to 200 for breadfruit and from 1 to 500 for chataigne. In all regions, except east Trinidad, the mean breadfruit tree number per farm was less than 30, whereas the mean chataigne tree number was approximately two and three times higher in south and central Trinidad, respectively, than in other regions in Trinidad (Table 1). Tree number per farm for both crops was low in Tobago.
Table 1
Number of breadfruit and chataigne trees/farm by regions in Trinidad and Tobago.
Region
Breadfruit trees/farm
Chataigne trees/farm
No. of Farms
Mean
SD
Median
No. of Farms
Mean
SD
Median
North
16
26.1
23.6
26.0
15
24.5
24.6
12.0
East
37
39.0
38.9
30.0
36
22.5
25.8
15.0
Central
8
28.3
20.0
20.0
8
61.1
39.5
54.5
South
16
24.8
30.5
12.5
14
49.6
130.1
15.0
Tobago
4
7.3
2.6
7.0
1
5.0
NA
NA
All Regions
81
31.0
32.6
20.0
74
32
61.8
15.0
SD – Standard Deviation; NA – Not applicable.
Purpose for Which Crops Were Grown
Most of the farmers (88.0%) grew both breadfruit and chataigne, with 9.6% growing only breadfruit, and 2.4% growing only chataigne. Among farmers who grew both crops, their relative importance was similar for 49%, while breadfruit was more important for 22.9% and chataigne was more important for 15.7%. Farmers commonly cultivated breadfruit and chataigne for home consumption (90.1% and 89.3%, respectively) and for income generation (67.9% and 65.3%, respectively). Preference for breadfruit for revenue generation was associated with the level of demand, whereas farmers who preferred chataigne considered the greater diversity of markets because of demand for the fruit at different stages of maturity—immature and mature fruits, and the mature seeds. The latter farmers also preferred the ease of harvesting ripe chataigne fruits for seeds, because the seeds were collected from fallen fruits. Another major reason for their cultivation was to provide shade (63.0% and 61.3%, for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively), but only 7.4% and 13.3% (for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively) of the farmers grew them for erosion control (Table 2). Religious use was among the other reasons for growing these crops, especially chataigne.
Table 2
Purposes for growing breadfruit and chataigne by regions in Trinidad and Tobago.
Region
Reasons for growing breadfruit and/or chataigne by region (% of farmers) (n = 83)
Food
Income
Shade
Soil Erosion
Other
Bf*
Ct**
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
North
87.5
75.0
68.8
68.8
68.8
62.5
6.3
12.5
6.3
6.3
East
91.9
94.4
78.4
72.2
59.5
58.3
2.7
11.1
2.7
5.6
Central
87.5
75.0
75.0
87.5
87.5
87.5
25.0
25.0
0.0
0.0
South
93.8
100.0
50.0
35.7
56.3
57.1
12.5
14.3
6.3
0.0
Tobago
75.0
100.0
25.0
0.0
50.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
25.0
0.0
Overall regions
90.1
89.3
67.9
65.3
63.0
61.3
7.4
13.3
4.9
4.0
*Bf = Breadfruit, **Ct = Chataigne.
Chi-square tests of association showed no significant difference among regions for any reason for growing breadfruit, but the percentage of Tobago farmers who grew chataigne for income was significantly less (P < 0.043) than that of Trinidad farmers.
Knowledge of Crop Utilization
All breadfruit farmers and 97.3% of those who grew chataigne reported that these crops were used for human consumption. The most well-known method of breadfruit preparation was by steaming in a dish called “oil-down,” in which the flesh of the fruit is cooked in coconut milk, with vegetables and condiments, and to which salted meats or fish may be added. Other commonly reported methods of preparation were boiling, roasting, and frying of breadfruit slices after boiling or roasting (Fig. 2). One African-influenced preparation method reported in north and east Trinidad was pounding boiled or roasted breadfruit with a mortar and pestle to make “tom-tom.” In a village with Venezuelan descendants in north Trinidad, an elderly farmer reported that the traditional name for breadfruit was “pandelino” while chataigne was called “castaña.” He also described “una saperota” as a dish with breadfruit boiled in rice, and “un caldo,” a breadfruit soup. Cooking the immature or mature breadfruit in curry was less familiar, but most farmers knew of other methods of preparing breadfruit including chips, salads, pies, and whole baked fruits stuffed with meat or fish. Cooking the immature fruit in a curry sauce with coconut milk to make “talkari” and boiling the seeds of the mature fruit were the methods for preparing chataigne reported by most farmers. Talkari and the less familiar “puri”—crushed breadfruit or chataigne seeds enclosed in roti skins (similar to flat bread)—were preparations of East Indian origin.
Fig. 2
Farmers’ awareness of methods of preparation of breadfruit and chataigne as food.
Breadfruit and chataigne producers (68.7% and 60.3%, respectively) reported the use of the ripe fruits, either cooked or uncooked, and the crushed seeds, as livestock feed. The main domestic animals fed breadfruit and chataigne were pigs (43.3% and 21.7%, respectively) and poultry (25% each) according to the farmers, while their use as feed for cattle and for wild animals grown in captivity including the agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) and deer (Mazama americana ) was less well known.
The majority of farmers (70% and 54%, for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively) were aware of uses for other parts of the trees beside the fruits for non-food purposes. The use of the latex as an adhesive called “laglee” locally was the most frequently reported non-food method of utilization (55.4% and 38.6%, respectively). The tree trunk or branches were slashed with a sharp cutlass or machete—a process referred to as “bleeding the tree”—to obtain latex. Boiling was reported to make the laglee more effective. The adhesive was used mainly to trap birds, including those which were pests in citrus orchards. Another use of laglee was to secure the wrapping on the handles of cutlasses used for brush-cutting weeds. In the treatment of strained muscles or ligaments in the back, chest, or at joints such as the wrist, the laglee was spread over a piece of cloth which was then tied to the injured areas to “draw” them into their proper place. The yellow senescing leaves of the breadfruit were used to make a tea which was consumed to reduce hypertension. Another use was making the trunks of old breadfruit trees into lumber for floors and partitions in houses, and farmers indicated that the wood was useful if it did not get wet.
Perceptions about Consumer Appreciation
Farmers in all regions, except Tobago, rated the levels of appreciation among consumers of the crops as food sources as high to very high (68.6% and 65.1% for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively), while the level of appreciation was considered to be moderate by 18.1% and 15.7%, and low to very low by 10.8% and 7.2%. The remaining farmers did not respond. The farmers thought that the major individual factors that contributed to non-consumption of breadfruit and chataigne were taste and cooking time. Difficult peeling of the seeds and of the immature fruits also discouraged use of chataigne. However, among the other reasons, many farmers suggested that the most important was ignorance of the crops or their methods of preparation, or the view held by some persons that they had eaten too much of these foods when they were younger. The farmers also thought that other reasons for non-consumption included the view that breadfruit was “hog food” or associated with poverty, while chataigne was difficult to digest, or caused flatulence, upset stomachs, and allergic reactions.
Perceptions of Consumer Demand
Farmers in south Trinidad reported high to very high demand for breadfruit when it was in season, followed by those in the east and north who reported very high to moderate levels of demand, while most farmers in central Trinidad and Tobago generally reported low to very low demand, or gave no response (Table 3). The differences among regions in farmers’ perceptions of levels of consumer demand for breadfruit was significant (P < 0.02). Farmers in central and east Trinidad reported high levels of demand for chataigne in season, followed by those in the south and north, where the perception of demand was more variable. Farmers in Tobago thought that demand for chataigne was negligible.
Table 3
Farmers’ perceptions of demand for breadfruit and chataigne when the crops were in season.
Region
% of farmers’ responses about demand for breadfruit (Bf) and chataigne (Ct) (n = 83)
Very High
High
Moderate
Low
Very Low
NR***
Bf*
Ct**
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
Bf
Ct
North
12.5
25.0
25.0
12.5
18.8
18.8
18.8
12.5
0
0
25.0
31.3
East
13.5
8.3
40.5
58.3
21.6
13.9
13.5
11.1
2.7
0
8.1
8.3
Central
0
0
37.5
62.5
0
0
25.0
0
0
0
37.5
37.5
South
37.5
21.4
37.5
28.6
0
14.3
0
7.1
0
0
25.0
28.6
Tobago
0
0
0
0
50.0
0
25.0
0
25.0
0
0
100.0
Total
16.0
13.3
34.6
42.7
16.0
13.3
13.6
9.3
2.5
0
17.3
21.3
*Bf = Breadfruit, **Ct = Chataigne, ***NR = No response.
Over all regions except Tobago, farmers reported that the demand had increased for breadfruit and chataigne (61.4% and 57.8%, respectively) in the previous ten years, compared with those who thought that demand had decreased (13.3% and 9.6%, for breadfruit and chataigne, respectively) or had not changed (13.3% and 16.9%).
Quantity of Fruit Sold
Among breadfruit and chataigne farmers, 58% and 52%, respectively, sold fruit to the local market during 2008. The mean number of breadfruit and chataigne fruits sold was 3,690 and 4,532, respectively (Table 4). Farmers from east Trinidad sold the most breadfruit, followed by those in the north and the south. Chataigne was sold only by farmers in Trinidad, with those in the south supplying most of the fruit, followed by those in the east and north. The mean fruit weight reported by farmers for breadfruit was 2 kg (4.4 lb) and for chataigne 0.9 kg (2 lb). Therefore, the estimated total quantity of fruit sold by these farmers in 2008 was 346,886 kg of breadfruit and 150,064 kg of chataigne.
Table 4
Quantity of breadfruit and chataigne sold by farmers in 2008 by region.
Region
Breadfruit
Chataigne
% of farmers
Mean no. of fruit sold /farmer ±SD
Median no. of fruit sold /farmer
Total no. of fruit sold
% of farmers
Mean no. of fruit sold /farmer ±SD
Median no. of fruit sold /farmer
Total no. of fruit sold
Trinidad
–North
56
3,442 ± 4,926
750
30,975
67
3,008 ± 2,361
3,187
30,075
–East
78
4,227 ± 6,015
1,560
122,594
63
2,676 ± 2,996
1,600
58,874
–Central
43
1,172 ± 1,110
875
3,515
57
2,920 ± 2,786
2,810
11,679
–South
36
3,122 ± 4,563
2,200
15,609
23
25,370 ± 42,982
910
76,110
Tobago
25
750
750
750
0
0
0
0
Overall
58
3,690 ± 5,379
1,500
173,443
52
4,532 ± 11,887
2,000
176,738
Prices
The most commonly reported farm gate or wholesale price for fresh breadfruit sold to vendors or exporters was TTD 200.00 (USD 32.00)/100 fruit (TTD 1.00 or USD 0.16/kg). Mean wholesale price was TTD 2.19/kg (± 1.55). Farmers also sold whole fruit at the public markets and roadside vegetable stalls at retail prices based on weight, which ranged from TTD 2.20 to 11.00/ kg (USD 0.34 to 1.72/kg) (mean price TTD 6.57 ± 3.02) depending on size, appearance, and availability. At special public functions such as a Family Day, some producers in north Trinidad reported selling roasted breadfruit at TTD 22.00 (USD 3.44)/ kg and a portion of fried chips at TTD 10.00 (USD 1.56). Farmers reported similar farm gate and wholesale prices for immature chataigne fruit, which might be offered at prices as low as TTD 100.00 (USD 15.63)/100 fruit if the vendor harvested the fruit. Mature fruit and seeds fetched TTD 2.00 and 4.00/kg (USD 0.32 and 0.64), respectively. Mean wholesale prices were TTD 4.14 ± 2.28 (USD 0.65) and TTD 8.45 ± 8.84 (USD 1.32) for mature fruit and seeds, respectively. Retail prices were generally 100% higher. The prices for boiled seeds were even higher at TTD 20.00 (USD 3.13)/kg.
Discussion and Conclusion
On-farm production of breadfruit and chataigne in Trinidad and Tobago occurs in agroforestry systems with other tree crops, mainly cocoa. This is a traditional production system used for cocoa because including shade trees is a standard recommendation for longevity and productivity of cocoa trees (Murray 1957). This crop surpassed sugarcane in Trinidad as the major export crop between 1866 and 1920. Therefore, breadfruit and chataigne also had a “prince and pauper” relationship with cocoa, because they were not grown for economic gain, but unlike the case with sugarcane, the association with cocoa as shade trees contributed to financial viability. The results of this study showed that this role is still important because a significant proportion of farmers grew breadfruit and chataigne for shade.
The present study showed that most farmers grew these crops for home consumption. This was an interesting result because it clearly indicated that the value of breadfruit as food was recognized by rural communities and that appreciation for it had grown over time. While breadfruit cultivation was more common, most breadfruit farmers also grew chataigne. As a plant protein source, chataigne would have been consumed first by vegetarian Hindu indentured laborers on the cocoa estates during the post-Emancipation era. Today, it remains an important food for families of estate owners, many of whom are East Indian descendants, and for the local Hindu community, particularly during periods of religious observances that require a vegetarian diet and at social functions (Jankie 2010).
Although most of the farmers were less than 60 years old, the methods of breadfruit preparation for food of which they were aware indicated that traditional methods predominate. Similarly, while being aware of newer preparation methods, consumers in Trinidad reported the traditional cooking methods—oil-down, steaming, boiling, and frying—to be more common (Roberts-Nkrumah and Badrie 2005). It was also noteworthy that some methods of preparation were little known and seemed to be confined to some ethnic groups. Farmers also confirmed that taste was the single most important factor affecting consumption of both crops as first reported by breadfruit consumers (Roberts-Nkrumah and Badrie 2005). The view that non-consumption was due to lack of knowledge of preparation methods suggested that reduced consumption among older persons could result in failure to transmit this knowledge and might be associated with increased preference for imported foods. Some resistance to breadfruit consumption might still persist due to negative associations with poverty during childhood, which is not conducive to its maintaining a place in the family’s diet, especially if economic circumstances improve and other food choices are available.
Both crops were available and very accessible sources of food even to the poorest persons. The authors have observed that the quantity of fruit sold represented approximately 50% of the harvest, which indicates that the practice of giving the fruits as gifts was very prevalent. Furthermore, breadfruit wholesale prices compared favorably with those for other locally grown starchy crops, including cassava, yam, dasheen, eddo, and sweet potato, which had average wholesale prices at public markets ranging from USD 0.60 to 1.40/ kg (TTD 3.84 to 8.97) during 2008 (National Agricultural Marketing and Development Corporation 2012). This lower price for breadfruit might be partly attributed to its shorter shelf life (Sankat and Maharaj 2007). In the previous survey among breadfruit consumers, 50% reported consuming more than 216 g/meal (Roberts-Nkrumah and Badrie 2005).
The estimated quantities of breadfruit and chataigne fruit sold by all farmers in the country in 2008, with a 20% allowance for post-harvest loss, were 2,764 and 2,441 tons, respectively, which would have contributed 2.13 kg and 1.88 kg per capita to total consumption of breadfruit and chataigne, respectively. Consumption is expected to be higher among persons who do not have to purchase fruit, but their relative proportion in the total population is unknown. The total amount of fruit available for use as food from trees on farms and off-farm is also unknown; however, the demand among consumers who purchase appears to be increasing, and the estimates of the contribution of locally sold fruit to total consumption of breadfruit and chataigne are low compared with those for imported carbohydrates and vegetable protein sources. Therefore, it is still necessary to encourage increased consumption of breadfruit and chataigne for greater contribution to food and nutrition security. Increased awareness of the methods of preparation with different cultural influences, an expanded range of recipes that will appeal to the youth, and minimal processing for greater convenience (Jankie 2010) are all strategies that may be effective in increasing consumption.
Breadfruit and chataigne have become cash crops for more than 50% of farmers, with prices that were sensitive to availability and market. Most breadfruit vendors at the public markets in Trinidad obtained their fruit from east Trinidad, and retail prices were lower at the larger markets in the cities where there were the most vendors and at the smaller rural markets closer to the areas of production (Roberts-Nkrumah, pers. obs.). Consistent with their perishability, the supply chain for breadfruit and chataigne was very short with many farmers selling fruit either at the farm gate, at the public markets, or both. Off-farm sales were facilitated by easy access to market by road or by sea from Tobago. On the basis of farm gate prices, in 2008 sales of fresh breadfruit and chataigne were valued at USD 1,153.10 (TTD 7,380) and USD 637.30 (TTD 4079) per farmer, respectively. Earnings would have been even higher with retail sales, especially of chataigne seeds. Additionally, savings on expenditure through household consumption indirectly contributed to the disposable income of farm families. The National Human Development Index, used to measure human development in terms of achievement of a long and healthy life, education, and a decent standard of living, was the lowest in east Trinidad (< 0.616) among all the administrative areas in the country, as was household income per capita per year during 2008 to 2009 (Central Statistical Office 2012). Therefore, additional income could be particularly important in this region, which supplied the local markets with the most breadfruit, the second most chataigne, and had the most farmers.
The potential for income generation appears to be greater since the authors estimated that the quantity sold represented less than 30% of the total production of both crops. Given their relatively low prices, breadfruit and chataigne offer the best opportunity among locally grown starchy crops for rural communities to develop small- to medium-scale processing of a range of products such as flour, chips, and canned seeds to add value and extend availability and consumption in local and export markets. Further opportunities for savings and income generation also exist in the utilization for other purposes including livestock feed (Valdivié and Alvarez 2006), insect and pest repellents (Jones et al. 2012; Roberts-Nkrumah 2007; Williams 1993), and medicinal or pharmaceuticals (Young et al. 1993). The commercial use of the latex and of the old trees as lumber needs to be explored. Knowledge of most of the non-food uses of breadfruit and chataigne was held by a small proportion of farmers, which might indicate that this information is being lost and that efforts must be made now to transmit and preserve it.
These results indicate farmers’ awareness of increasing consumer appreciation and demand for breadfruit and chataigne and increased sales in local markets in Trinidad and Tobago. Clearly less stigma is now attached to these “paupers,” which is significant for more widespread consumption and contribution to food security, both in farming communities and in urban areas. As cash crops, breadfruit and chataigne can directly increase farm income, extending their importance beyond the indirect benefits derived by the cocoa main crop. Their promotion for food and nutrition security and to facilitate development of rural communities through food and non-food uses can enhance their status even further with the application of the results of already existing research and efforts to preserve and transmit traditional knowledge.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude to the farmers who participated in the survey and thank the staff of the Central Statistical Office, the Ministry of Food Production and Marine Affairs, the Cocoa and Coffee Industry Board, the research and technical assistants, and the Department of Food Production for their contributions.
