Information on the use of
medicinal plants in Karst and Gorjanci is not available in the
literature, but collection of plants is still an important and
widespread practice in these regions. Karst and Gorjanci are two remote
regions in Slovenia that are only 120 km apart but have different
climates; one region is close to the Italian border, and the other is
near the Croatian border. Our aim was to report and compare the use of
medicinal plants in both regions.
Methods
From October 2013 to September
2014, 25 informants each in Karst and Gorjanci were interviewed during
field research. The age of the informants ranged from 33 to 89 years,
with an average age of 61 years in Karst and 69 years in Gorjanci. The
main question was “Which plants do or did you collect from nature and
use?” Plants of medicinal, nutritive, veterinary or cosmetic use were
considered.
Results
A total of 78 and 82 taxa were
reported in Karst and Gorjanci, respectively; 65 taxa were reported in
both regions. Approximately 64% of the plants in each region were
distinctive for only a few informants (fewer than 7). The remaining
plants were considered important, and the majority were mutual to both
regions. Few reported plants were typical for just one region.
Differences in the use of some common medicinal plants were observed,
e.g., Matricaria chamomilla
was used mostly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders,
respiratory infections and sore eyes in Gorjanci but as a calmative in
Karst. Altogether, 15 different oral and 15 different topical medicinal
preparations were reported. Folk knowledge was found to be influenced by
the media, particularly popular books about medicinal plants that were
published in the 20th century.
Conclusions
The present research documents
the folk use of medicinal plants in Karst and Gorjanci, Slovenia. This
rapidly changing practice needs to be documented before it disappears or
changes.
In
Slovenia, knowledge about plants is transmitted from generation to
generation and is also influenced by written sources. The beginning of
this practice goes back to Comments of Dioscorides
written by Pietro Andrea Mattioli. He lived and worked from 1540 to
1554 in Gorica, a town in northeastern Italy populated by a
Slovene-speaking minority, and he was the first to describe plants of
Slovenian flora [1, 2].
In the 18th and 19th centuries, folk healers in Slovenian ethnic
territory used folk medicine manuscripts, which were translations of
mostly German medicine and veterinary books, especially herbals (or
Kräuterbücher) from the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th
century [1, 3] Most manuscripts were translations of Gart der Gesundheit (1485), Kreutterbuch by Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1590), Neu Vollkommenes Kräuter-Buch by Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1678), Vollständiges Kräuterbuch by Adam Lonicer (1557), and Neu Vollkomentlich Kreuterbuch
by Jakob Tabernaemontanus (1613). Later, the translated books were
manually transcribed many times, and the transcribers added their own
observations to the manuscripts [1].
In the second half of the 19th century, the first original
(non-translated) Slovenian works about medicinal plants were published [4, 5], and manuals for the wild collection, drying and use of Slovenian medicinal plants were issued later [6, 7, 8, 9].
Throughout the 20th century, there was steady growth of published books
about medicinal plants; some of them were original Slovenian works, and
some were translations from foreign authors; most were written by
pharmacists and only some by folk healers [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
The
use of plants has been scarcely investigated in Slovenia, and only a
few ethnobotanical studies have been conducted. The Karst region is a
limestone plateau in southwestern Slovenia that continues on the Italian
side of the border [28].
The Italian part of the Karst region, also known as Trieste Karst, was
included in an ethnobotanical study of the Venezia Giulia region in
1988, and a list of 59 plants that were used in Trieste Karst was
reported [29].
Guštin Grilanc investigated the folk herbalist tradition in both the
Italian and Slovenian parts of the Karst region and published a list of
124 plants used for healing, food, toys, superstitions, and folk
traditions with short descriptions [30];
however, the methodology of the work was not described, and only a
detailed list of informants was given. Gorjanci is a mountain range in
southeastern Slovenia that runs southwest to northeast along the
Croatian border [31].
From 1950 to 1983, ethnographic researchers collected testimonials on
the natural and magical treatment of the people in Dolenjska and Bela
Krajina, two regions where Gorjanci is located. Makarovič [32]
analyzed the collected testimonials and concluded that the
ethnographers’ notes contained random and generalized data on knowledge
about natural medicines and magical practices; those data were collected
unsystematically and were incomplete. As a result, this analysis
provided a very rough estimation of the use of medicinal plants. A total
of 112 plants were mentioned (botanical names were often missing, and
only the local names were given), and the most frequent were Matricaria chamomilla, Sambucus nigra, Allium sativum, Juniperus communis, Tilia platyphyllos, Allium cepa, and Sempervivum tectorum.
In addition, some socio-economic studies [33, 34, 35] investigated the plants people use in Slovenia. According to these studies, the most frequently used plants in Slovenia were Achillea millefolium, Hypericum perforatum, Matricaria chamomilla, Mentha piperita, Salvia officinalis, Sambucus nigra, Tilia platyphyllos, and Urtica dioica (Table 1).
A survey on wild-growing edible plants and human nutrition was
conducted using a Slovenian cookbook and informants from different
regions of Slovenia. According to the informants, the five most
frequently reported taxa were Taraxacum officinale agg., Fragaria sp., Castanea sativa, Vaccinium myrtillus and Sambucus nigra; according to the cookbooks, the five most frequently mentioned taxa were Juglans regia, Armoracia rusticana, Castanea sativa, Corylus avellana, and Taraxacum officinale agg. [36].
Table 1
Most frequently used plants in Slovenia, as reported in previous socio-economic studies [33, 34, 35]
Plants for abdominal pain, headache, diarrhea, and fever [11]
Achillea millefolium
X
X
X
X
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
X
Arnica montana
X
Calendula officinalis
X
Centaurium minus
X
Echinacea purpurea
X
Hypericum perforatum
X
X
X
Matricaria chamomilla
X
X
X
Mentha piperita
X
X
X
Rosa canina
X
Salvia officinalis
X
X
X
X
Sambucus nigra
X
X
X
X
Tilia platyphyllos
X
X
X
X
Urtica dioica
X
X
X
Vaccinium myrtillus
X
Valeriana officinalis
X
Similar to the neighboring countries of Austria [37, 38] and Italy [39, 40, 41, 42], the wild collection of plants is also important in Slovenia. According to a survey conducted in seven pharmacies [34],
the informants obtained medicinal plants from a pharmacy (68%) or by
wild collection (48%). Other possible sources were friends and relatives
(33%), specialized shops (19%), and herbalists (17%). In another study
conducted in the city of Velenje, the informants obtained medicinal
plants by wild collection (37%), from relatives (25%), from a pharmacy
(24%) or from a market (5%) [35].
Limited
information about the folk use of plants for medicinal and nutritive
purposes is available for Slovenia. This paper reports the results of a
study on the use of plants in two areas in Slovenia: Gorjanci in
southeastern Slovenia and Karst in western Slovenia. The areas are
approximately 120 km apart; one is close to the Italian border, and the
other is close to the Croatian border. Except for one mountain pass,
Gorjanci is rather impassable to Croatia, whereas Karst is more passable
to Italy and is the hinterland of Trieste, which has been a trading
port for centuries. Karst is a transitional region with Mediterranean
and continental influences, and Gorjanci has a moderate continental
climate. Both areas are rural and remote, and the landscape is only
partially cultivated. They are inhabited by a Slovene population
(approximately 95%). In the past, the inhabitants were farmers, but the
active population currently consists of daily migrants to industrial
centers. People are still connected to nature, and knowledge about
plants is important in their lives because they produce their own food
in gardens or fields and some are still farmers [28, 31].
This study focused on plants for medicinal use but also includes plants
for nutritive, cosmetic and veterinary uses. This study aimed to
investigate the following: 1) the plants used in villages in the
foothills of Gorjanci and in Karst, 2) the plant preparations and
purposes for their use, and 3) the differences in the use of plants
between Gorjanci and Karst; these could be the result of differences in
climate, vegetation or connections to neighboring areas.
Methods
Research area
The
use of plants was investigated through interviews with local people in
villages in the Karst plateau in southwestern Slovenia and in villages
in the foothills of the Gorjanci mountain range in southeastern Slovenia
(Fig. 1).
The interviews were conducted from October to December 2013 and from
May to September 2014. The villages in Karst included Pliskovica, Veliki
dol, Brje pri Komnu, Gorjansko, Klanec pri Komnu, Štanjel, Kobdilj,
Grahovo Brdo, Griže and Štjak (altitudes ranging from 184 to 518 m above
sea level). The villages in Gorjanci included Iglenik, Vrhe, Dolž, Mali
Cerovec, Pangrč Grm, Sela pri Zajčjem Vrhu, Stopiče, Dolenji Suhadol,
Cerov Log and Mihovo (altitudes ranging from 232 to 442 m above sea
level).
Fig. 1
Map of the study area. The villages where the interviews were conducted are represented by dots
Karst is a limestone plateau in southwestern Slovenia. The climate has Mediterranean and continental influences [28], and the mean precipitation ranges from 1400 to 1650 mm per year [43].
The mean January and July temperatures are 2.4 and 20.8 °C,
respectively. The predominant bedrock is limestone, which is vulnerable
to corrosion. The bedrock is covered with chromic cambisol, chromic
luvisol and rendzina. The natural forests are composed of pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens), hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) and flowering ash (Fraxinus ornus) [44]. In the 19th century, parts of Karst were afforested with black pine (Pinus nigra). The population density is 41 people per km2, and the farming population represented 4.1% of the total population in 1991. There are 100 settlements [28].
Industrialization with employment began after the Second World War and
advanced after 1960. The active population began to travel daily from
rural areas to the surrounding industrial centers [45].
Gorjanci
is a mountain range in southeastern Slovenia. It has a moderate
continental climate with mean precipitation between 1100 and 1300 mm per
year. In the foothills, the mean January and July temperatures are
approximately 0 and 20 °C, respectively. Gorjanci consists primarily of
limestone and dolomite and is covered with rendzina and chromic
cambisol. The higher regions of Gorjanci are overgrown with extensive
beech forests (Fagus sylvatica). Some areas have been deforested for pasture and are now becoming naturally overgrown or reforested with spruce (Picea abies) and fir (Abies alba). Forests of beech (Fagus sylvatica) and hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) grow in the eastern part of Gorjanci. Oak (Quercus petraea)
forests grow in the western and central parts of Gorjanci up to 400 and
600 m in altitude, respectively. The area is sparsely populated; the
population density was 27 people per km2 in 1991. The highest
number of inhabitants, 8000, occurred at the beginning of World War II.
This remote area is characterized by the depopulation of young people,
who migrate to cities. There are 87 settlements, most of which are
located on the periphery. In 1961, two-thirds of the population were
farmers, whereas 22.2% of the population was farmers in 1991. Farmers
produce livestock and mostly grow fodder plants [31].
Data collection
In
the study, 25 informants each were interviewed in Karst and in
Gorjanci. The age of the informants ranged from 33 to 89 years, with an
arithmetic mean age of 61 years in Karst and 69 years in Gorjanci
(Table 2).
In Karst, 23 informants were originally from the Karst region, and two
informants were born near that region. In Gorjanci, 17 informants were
originally from villages in the foothills of Gorjanci, and 8 informants
were born close to that region (30 km radius). Purposive and snowball
sampling methods were used in this study [46, 47].
Informants were contacted in villages (on the street, outside their
house or in the field). They were often recommended by other members of
their family as being more knowledgeable and by other informants in
their village or neighboring villages. The informants were recruited
without any selection based on sex, age or social status. The interviews
were performed in the homes of the informants and in the fields. The
language used in the interviews was Slovenian. The informants were made
aware of the scope of the study, and informed consent was obtained.
Table 2
Informants’ age and sex in Karst and Gorjanci
Average age (years)
Age (years)
Sex
33–49
50–69
70–89
Male
Female
Karst
61
4
15
6
6
19
Gorjanci
69
5
4
16
1
24
Interviews and statistical analysis
Free-listing and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data [47, 48].
At the beginning of the interview, the informants were asked to list
the plants that they use currently or used in the past and that are
collected from nature. They were asked the following free-listing
question: “Which plants do or did you collect from nature and use?”
Then, they were asked the following questions for each plant:
Which part of the plant do you use?
How do you prepare it?
What is it good for?
Who would you recommend it to?
At
the end of the interview, the informants were also asked to answer the
following questions about the sources of their knowledge:
“Where did you get your knowledge about plants?” and “Did anybody show or tell you something about plants?”
The informants’ answers were written in a notebook and then entered and organized in worksheets in Microsoft Excel 2010 [49]. Statistical analyses were performed using MS Excel, Visual Anthropac [50], and SPSS [51].
Visual Anthropac was used to perform an analysis of the free-list data
in which frequency, rank, and Smith’s salience index were calculated.
Rank (order) and frequency of mention are two measures of importance
(salience) that are combined into a single index called the Smith’s
salience index [52].
Other statistical analyses were performed using MS Excel and SPSS. SPSS
was used to perform Pearson’s chi-squared test and Fisher’s exact test.
Since purposive sampling was used for informant selection, the results
of the statistical analysis are limited to the population under study [46].
Plant material
Plant
samples (fresh plants, dried plants and sometimes herbal preparations)
were collected at informants’ homes or nearby when possible (sometimes
this was not possible due to the condition of the informant’s health or
the weather). When possible, more knowledgeable informants were followed
into the field to show us the reported plants. The plants were
identified by both authors and stored at the herbarium of the Faculty of
Pharmacy, University of Ljubljana. Cultivated plants were not
collected. The plant nomenclature followed Mala flora Slovenije [53] and was checked using the online database The Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org/).
In some cases, which are reported in the results section, the
informants used several species belonging to the same genus for the same
purposes, although they were aware that they were different species (Artemisia spp., Mentha spp., Plantago spp., Quercus spp., and Trifolium spp.). Furthermore, in some cases, the informants did not distinguish among different species belonging to the same genus (Asparagus spp., Crataegus spp., Centaurium spp., Lavandula spp., Rosa spp., Rubus spp., Solidago spp., and Tilia spp.).
Results and discussion
General data on the plants reported in Karst and Gorjanci
In
each region, 25 informants were interviewed and reported a total of 94
plants, including 77 in Karst and 81 in Gorjanci; 64 plants were
reported in both regions (Table 3).
Table 3
Medicinal (MED),
veterinary (VET), nutritional (NUT), cosmetic (COS) and other (OTHER)
uses of wild (W) and cultivated (C) plants in Karst and Gorjanci. The
data were gathered from interviews with 25 informants in Karst and 25
informants in Gorjanci
No. of informants in Karst
No. of informants in Gorjanci
Botanical taxon and family
Slovenian name
Status
Part(s) used
Preparation and administration
Recorded uses in Karst
Recorded uses in Gorjanci
14
20
Achillea millefolium L.
(Asteraceae)
Rman
W
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of stomach and digestive problems, menstrual cramps and gynecological problems
MED:
treatment of stomach and digestive problems, menstrual cramps, women’s
problems; to cleanse the body and kidneys; diuretic; treatment of cold
NUT
Fresh flowers are wrapped around the hand
×
MED: to heal sore hands
Browned
flour soup with yarrow flowers (soup made by roasting and browning
flour, roasting yarrow flowers and adding water and two eggs)
×
MED: treatment of intestinal problems
Egg omelet with yarrow flowers
MED: treatment of digestive problems
×
Ointment made with lard
MED: treatment of hemorrhoids
×
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
3
2
Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Hippocastanaceae)
Divji kostanj
C
Fruit
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: treatment of varicose veins
MED: treatment of spinal inflammation
Chestnuts are placed in a bag, and the bag is rubbed on the feet
MED: treatment of pain in the legs
MED: to promote better blood circulation in legs
Flower
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: treatment of varicose veins
×
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
2
2
Allium cepa L. (Alliaceae)
Čebula
C
Bulb
Fried pieces of onion are placed on the skin
×
MED: to heal furuncles and abscesses
Onions and honey, oral application
MED: treatment of bronchitis and sore throat
×
1
1
Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae)
Česen
C
Clove
Necklace made of garlic cloves is worn around the neck
×
MED: anthelmintic
Tincture
Unknown use
×
2
4
Allium ursinum L. (Alliaceae)
Čemaž
W
Leaf
Salad, spread made with olive oil
NUT
NUT: good for cleansing, purifier of vessels, to decrease blood pressure (the informants did not eat A. ursinum for medicinal purposes)
Maceration in schnapps
×
NUT: good for everything
5
0
Aloysia citrodora Palau (Verbenaceae)
Leviš, citronka
C
Leaf
Infusion
NUT
×
Maceration in schnapps with sugar
NUT
×
6
2
Althaea officinalis L. (Malvaceae)
Slez, ajbiš
C
Leaf
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: treatment of cough, good for the respiratory system
Fresh leaf is placed on a wound
MED: to heal wounds
×
Scalded leaves are placed on damaged skin (skin punctured with a nail or thorn that becomes infected, called “pasjica” in Karst)
MED: to heal wounds, to pull pus out of the wound
×
Leaves cooked in milk, oral application
MED: treatment of sore throat
×
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
4
2
Anthyllis vulneraria L. (Fabaceae)
Ranjak
W
Flower
Infusion, topical application
×
MED: to rinse and heal wounds
Infusion, oral application
NUT
×
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
1
0
Armoracia rusticana G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Schreb.
(Brassicaceae)
Hren
W/C
Root
Grated root eaten with other Easter dishes
NUT
×
6
12
Arnica montana L. (Asteraceae)
Arnika
W
Flower
Maceration in olive oil, topical application
MED: to heal wounds, burns, scabs and contusions
MED: to massage painful areas, rheumatism
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: to massage painful areas (knees)
MED: to disinfect wounds, to heal wounds, treatment of inflamed wounds, rashes, burns and stings
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
×
MED: to heal stomach problems
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
7
6
Artemisia
(Artemisia vulgaris L., Artemisia absinthium L.) (Asteraceae)
Pelin
W/C
Aerial parts (of young plants) and leaves
Wormwood is placed in wine for a short time, for drinking (usually with fatty food)
×
MED: to promote appetite and digestion, good for the stomach
NUT: a drink with fatty foods, invigoration in spring
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: treatment of stomach and digestive problems
Infusion for spraying vines
OTHER: to prevent or treat vine diseases
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: treatment of digestive problems, good for the stomach
MED: treatment of stomach problems
Wormwood is placed in water for a short time for drinking
MED:
treatment of stomachache, stomach problems, digestive problems,
menstrual problems, cold, flu, antipyretic, to calm nerves, to
counteract tiredness, to heal wounds on the gum
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: treatment of digestive problems, loss of appetite, anemia
VET: to heal digestive problems
MED: treatment of stomach problems and stomachache
Grass with centaury, animal feed
VET: animal is healthier if it feeds on grass containing centaury
×
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
2
2
Chelidonium majus L. (Papaveraceae)
Krvavi mlečnik
W
Latex
Latex, topical application
MED: treatment of warts
MED: treatment of warts
8
2
Cornus mas L.
(Cornaceae)
Dren
W
Fruit
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
NUT
MED: treatment of abdominal cramps
NUT
Jam
NUT
NUT
Infusion
NUT
NUT
Syrup
NUT
×
Raw fruits
NUT
×
Flower
Infusion
NUT
×
13
6
Crataegus spp.
(Rosaceae)
Glog
W
Flower and leaf
Infusion, oral application
MED: good for the heart, good for the prevention of epilepsy, good for nerves
NUT
MED: good for the heart
NUT
Fruit
Infusion
NUT
NUT
Raw fruits
NUT
×
2
1
Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench
(Asteraceae)
Ameriški slamnik
C
Flower
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
×
MED: immunostimulant
Root
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: immunostimulant
×
2
10
Equisetum arvense L. (Equisetaceae)
Preslica
W
Aerial parts
Infusion, oral application
MED: to cleanse the kidneys and lungs
MED: diuretic, to cleanse kidneys, blood and body, treatment of urinary tract inflammation
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
2
0
Ficus carica L. (Moraceae)
Figa
C
Fruit
Jam
NUT
×
Latex
Latex, topical application
MED: treatment of warts
×
13
0
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae)
Koromač
(in Karst)
W/C
Flower
Dried crushed flowers, spice (known as “golden dust” in Karst)
NUT: spice for fried livers, fried eggs and browned flower soup
×
Aerial parts of young plants
Egg omelet with young aerial parts of fennel
NUT
×
Fruit
Infusion
MED: to heal abdominal cramps, counteracts flatulence, infusion for children
×
5
13
Fragaria vesca L.
(Rosaceae)
Divja jagoda, gozdna jagoda
W
Fruit
Raw berries
NUT
NUT
Leaf
Infusion
NUT
NUT
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
0
3
Galium odoratum (L.) Scop.
(Rubiaceae)
Dišeča perla
W
Aerial parts of flowering plant
Infusion
×
NUT
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
3
1
Gentiana lutea L. (Gentianaceae)
Košutnik, encijan, lecijan
W
Root
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: to heal stomach problems
NUT
MED: good for the stomach
Infusion, oral application
VET: to heal intestinal problems (livestock)
×
1
0
Hedera helix L.
(Araliaceae)
Bršljan
W
Leaf and fruit
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: treatment of contusions
×
11
16
Hypericum perforatum L.
(Hypericaceae)
Šentjanževka, šentjanževe rože
W
Flower
Maceration in oil, topical application
MED:
to heal wounds, contusions, burns and sunburn; to massage painful areas
(arthritis); treatment of varicose veins, treatment of back pain
COS: to promote tanning of the skin in the sun
MED:
to heal wounds, scabs, burns and sunburn; treatment of varicose veins;
to massage painful areas and inflamed joints (rheumatism)
VET: to heal indigestion in hens (when they eat too much sand)
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: treatment of varicose veins
MED: to massage painful areas and joints (rheumatism), to heal wounds and contusions
Infusion, oral application
Indication was not recorded, although the infusion is used
MED: treatment of menstrual and stomach problems, calmative, counteracts depression
Infusion for bath
×
MED: treatment of tired legs
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
Aerial parts
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
×
MED: to disinfect cuts and wounds
2
0
Inula hirta L. (Asteraceae)
Astramontana, strupenica, srkodlakavi oman
W
Flower
Infusion, topical application
MED: to heal wounds, especially poisoned wounds
VET: to heal snake bites (dog)
×
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: to heal wounds, especially poisoned wounds
VET: to heal snake bites (dog)
×
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: good for the stomach
×
2
8
Juglans regia L. (Juglandaceae)
Oreh
C
Unripe fruit
Maceration in schnapps
NUT
MED: treatment of digestive disorders and stomachache; counteracts diarrhea
VET: to heal intestinal problems (livestock)
NUT
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
Leaf
Water extract made by cooking leaves in water, topical application
×
VET: to protect animals from horseflies/horsefly repellent (steer/bullock)
12
9
Juniperus communis L.
(Cupressaceae)
Brin
W
Fruit
Alcoholic distillate from fermented juniper berries, oral application
MED: treatment of digestive problems, stomachache, stomach problems and cramps, to promote better digestion
NUT
MED: treatment of menstrual and women’s problems, stomach problems and stomachache, treatment of digestive problems
NUT: aperitif, drink in the morning
Alcoholic distillate from fermented juniper berries topical application
×
MED: treatment of swollen legs
Essential oil from fermented juniper berries, topical application
MED:
to massage painful areas and joints (arthritis and rheumatism), to
promote better blood circulation (rubefacient), treatment of cramps and
colic in babies and children, to heal wounds, to heal dog bites
MED: treatment of intestinal problems
Essential
oil from fermented juniper berries, topical application around the
navel, on the temples, under the nose, on the head, used for children
MED: anthelmintic
MED: anthelmintic
Essential oil from fermented juniper berries, a small amount is placed on sugar and eaten
MED: treatment of stomachache and digestive problems
MED: antipyretic
Dried berries, spice
NUT: good for the stomach, sauerkraut, jota (soup)
NUT: to promote better digestion
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: treatment of stomach problems
NUT
×
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: good for the internal organs
Bread with essential oil from fermented juniper berries, oral application
×
VET: treatment of intestinal problems (steer/bullock)
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
Twig
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: treatment of digestive problems
Syrup
×
MED: treatment of sore throat
9
2
Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae)
Lovor
C
Leaf
Spice
NUT: spice for sauerkraut and beans, used in dishes to prevent flatulence
NUT
Syrup, oral application
MED: treatment of cough, antiflatulent
×
7
2
Lavandula spp.
(Lamiaceae)
Sivka
C
Flower
Dried flowers placed in sachets
OTHER: household moth repellent
OTHER: household moth repellent
Infusion, oral application
MED: to calm the nerves
×
Home distillation of essential oil and hydrosol
COS: good for the skin, to cleanse the skin
×
Spice
NUT: spice for biscuits
×
4
1
Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch (Apiaceae)
Luštrek
C
Leaf
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: good for the stomach
NUT
×
Spice
NUT
×
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: diuretic
0
3
Linum usitatissimum L.
(Linaceae)
Lan
C
Seed
Linseed is placed in the eye
×
MED: treatment of eye infection, if something falls in the eye
Aerial parts
Fabric
×
OTHER: fabric for sheets, clothes
0
1
Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill.
(Rosaceae)
Lesnika
W
Fruit
Vinegar
×
NUT
16
19
Matricaria chamomilla L. (Asteraceae)
Kamilica
W/C
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: digestion, flatulence, abdominal cramps, to calm the stomach, to calm the nerves, to heal sore throat, for women’s problems
MED:
treatment of abdominal and menstrual cramps; for digestive, stomach and
women’s problems; to counteract nausea, to enable vomiting, to calm the
stomach, treatment of cold, flu and cough, to calm babies, infusion for
women giving birth
NUT
Infusion, topical application
MED: to rinse sore eyes, to cleanse wounds
MED: to rinse sore eyes
Infusion with schnapps, oral application
×
MED: to heal abdominal cramps
Infusion for inhalation
×
MED: to heal sore throat and bronchitis
Infusion for bath
COS: to cleanse skin
×
Decoction, oral application
×
MED: against diarrhea
Warm chamomile flowers are wrapped in gauze and placed on the chest or eyes
×
MED: to heal bronchitis, to heal cold with respiratory or breathing problems, to heal sore throat and sore eyes
Maceration in olive oil, topical application
COS: ointment for skin
×
Ointment made with lard: flowers are fried in lard and drained; topical application
COS: ointment for skin
×
Fried egg sprinkled with chamomile flowers, oral application
×
MED: treatment of abdominal and menstrual cramps
Browned flour soup sprinkled with chamomile flowers (as spice)
×
NUT
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
×
Aerial parts
Infusion, oral application
×
VET: to heal problems of cows after calving and to heal digestive problems
18
7
Melissa officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)
Melisa, srčno zelje, štrukljevo perje
C
Leaf
Infusion, oral application
MED: to calm the nerves
NUT
MED: to calm the nerves, used before bedtime for better sleep, treatment of stomach problems
NUT
Syrup
NUT
NUT
Egg omelet with lemon balm leaves, oral application
NUT
MED: treatment of ascites
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
18
8
Mentha spp.
(Lamiaceae)
Meta
W/C
Leaf
Infusion, oral application
MED: to calm the nerves, treatment of cold
NUT
MED: to calm the nerves, before bedtime for better sleep, treatment of stomach problems, digestive problems, cholagogue
NUT
Syrup
NUT
NUT
Spice
NUT: spice for meat
×
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
2
0
Morus spp.
(Morus alba L.,
Morus nigra L.)
(Moraceae)
Murva
C
Fruit
Fresh fruits
NUT
×
3
1
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae)
Bazilika
C
Leaf
Spice
NUT
×
Infusion
NUT
×
1
0
Olea europea L. (Oleaceae)
Oljka
C
Leaf
Infusion
MED: to lower blood pressure
×
8
2
Origanum majorana L.
(Lamiaceae)
Majaron
C
Aerial parts
Infusion, oral application
NUT
MED: calmative, for better sleeping
Spice
NUT
NUT
1
4
Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae)
Dobra misel
W
Aerial parts
Infusion, oral application
MED: calmative
NUT
NUT: children learn better at school
0
2
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
(Fabaceae)
Fižol
C
Pericarp
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: antidiabetic, antihypertensive
6
10
Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.
(Pinaceae)
Smreka, smrečje
W/C
Tips
Spruce tip syrup made with sugar or honey, oral application
MED: treatment of cough, sore throat, bronchitis, and cold, to increase the body’s resistance
MED: treatment of cough, cold, bronchitis and sore throat
Infusion, oral application
Indication was not recorded, although the infusion is used
MED: treatment of cough, good for lungs
Resin
Pounded resin is wrapped in fabric, topical application
×
MED:
treatment of wounds, abscesses and furuncles (the resin pulls the pus
out from the inflamed skin), treatment of sore nipples while
breastfeeding
3
5
Pimpinella anisum L. (Apiaceae)
Janež
C
Fruit
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of abdominal cramps, antiflatulent, carminative
MED: treatment of digestive and stomach problems, carminative, antiflatulent
VET: treatment of udder inflammation (cow)
NUT
Spice
NUT: spice for beans, sauerkraut, and fried eggs
NUT: spice for pastry
0
2
Pinus sylvestris L.
(Pinaceae)
Bor
W
Tips
Syrup made from pine tips and sugar, oral application
×
MED: treatment of cough and asthma
Young cone
Syrup made from pine cones and sugar, oral application
×
MED: treatment of sore throat
10
9
Plantago spp.
(Plantago lanceolata L., Plantago major L.)
(Plantaginaceae)
Trpotec
W
Leaf
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of cough, cold and stomach ulcer
MED: treatment of cough and gastritis
NUT
Syrup, oral application
MED: treatment of cough
MED: treatment of cough
Fresh leaf is placed on the skin
MED: treatment of wounds
MED: treatment of wounds, furuncles, abscesses and stings
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
1
6
Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch
(Rosaceae)
Srčna moč
W
Root
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of stomach problems
MED: treatment of stomach problems, good for the heart
Infusion for inhalation
×
MED: treatment of respiratory problems (night asthma)
Flower and root
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
3
12
Primula vulgaris Huds.
(Primulaceae)
Trobentica
W
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: good for ill children
MED: treatment of cold, good for lungs and respiratory system, diuretic
NUT
Syrup, oral application
×
MED: treatment of cough
Flower and root
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
4
1
Prunus avium L. var. sylvestris (Kirschl.) (Rosaceae)
Divje češnje
W
Fruit
Maceration in schnapps with sugar
NUT
×
Jam
NUT
×
Dried fruits
×
NUT: dried fruits for children
0
2
Prunus domestica L. (Rosaceae)
Sliva, češplja
C
Fruit
Dried fruits
×
MED: against constipation, good for stool
NUT
Compote from dried fruits
×
MED: against constipation
NUT
10
5
Prunus spinosa L. (Rosaceae)
Črn trn
W
Flower
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: against blood clotting
NUT
Fruit
Raw fruits
MED: against diarrhea
NUT
NUT
Infusion
NUT
×
Fruits are macerated schnapps and sugar
NUT
×
0
7
Pulmonaria officinalis L. (Boraginaceae)
Pljučnik
W
Aerial parts of flowering plant
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: treatment of pneumonia, cold and cough, good for lungs
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
0
1
Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae)
Tepka
C
Fruit
Dried fruit, oral application
×
MED: against diarrhea
NUT
2
6
Quercus spp.
(Fagaceae)
Hrast
W
Bark
Water extract: bark is cooked in water; oral application
VET: against diarrhea (livestock)
×
Bark is placed in hot water, and a person sits on the steam
MED: treatment of gynecological problems
MED: treatment of bladder inflammation and menstrual problems
Acorn
Preparation was reported
×
VET: pig feed
5
3
Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Fabaceae)
Akacija, ahacovna
W
Flower
Infusion
NUT
NUT
Fresh flowers cooked with pancake batter in a frying pan
NUT
NUT
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
22
16
Rosa spp.
(Rosaceae)
Šipek
W
Fruit
Infusion (dried rose hips can be cooked two or three times)
MED: treatment of cold
NUT: contains lots of vitamin C
MED: treatment of cold
NUT: contains lots of vitamin C
Liqueur with schnapps (fruits are macerated schnapps and sugar)
NUT
×
Jam
NUT
×
11
2
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)
Rožmarin
C
Leaf, twig
Spice
NUT: spice for goulash
NUT
Ointment with beeswax, topical application
×
MED: to promote blood circulation (rubefacient)
Maceration in wine, oral application (a few spoonfuls per day)
MED: against anemia
×
Cooked in wine, oral application
MED: good for a weak heart
×
Cooked in wine, topical application
MED: spinal massage for strengthening the spine of children
×
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of sore feet and legs, good for a weak heart
×
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
2
5
Rubus idaeus L. (Rosaceae)
Malina
W/C
Leaf
Infusion
NUT
NUT
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
Fruit
Fresh berries
×
NUT
Syrup
NUT
×
Alcoholic distillate from fermented berries
NUT
×
11
8
Rubus spp.
(only species with black fruits)
(Rosaceae)
Robida, kopina
W
Leaf
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of diarrhea
VET: treatment of diarrhea
NUT
MED: treatment of diarrhea
NUT
Fresh leaf is placed on the wound
×
MED: to heal wounds
Fruit
Fresh berries
NUT
NUT
Jam
NUT
×
Herbal liqueur
×
NUT/MED
6
2
Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae)
Vinska rutica, rüda
C
Aerial parts (leaf)
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
NUT: aperitif
MED: treatment of stomach problems, stimulation of appetite
NUT
Egg omelet with rue
MED: treatment of stomach and digestive problems
×
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
22
11
Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)
Žajbelj
W/C
Leaf
Infusion for drinking or gargling
MED: treatment of sore throat, cold and cough, good for gums and teeth
MED: treatment of sore throat, inflammation in mouth, cough and cold, good for lungs
Infusion for inhalation
×
MED: to facilitate breathing
Leaves cooked in sweet or caramel milk, oral application
MED: treatment of sore throat, cough and bronchitis
NUT: before bedtime
MED: treatment of sore throat, cough and cold
NUT: before bedtime
Fresh leaf for chewing
MED: good for teeth and gums, treatment of periodontitis and cold
MED: good for teeth, treatment of inflammation
Dried leaves, spice
NUT
NUT: spice for black pudding
Maceration in schnapps and honey, oral application
MED: treatment of cold
NUT
×
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: treatment of cold
NUT
NUT
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: to heal wounds
×
Flower
Syrup
NUT
×
24
24
Sambucus nigra L. (Sambucaceae)
Bezeg
W/C
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of fever, cold, diaphoretic, diuretic, to lower blood sugar level
NUT: for thirst in the summer, has good taste
MED: treatment of cold, fever, sore throat, flu, cough and angina
NUT: for every day, in the morning, in the evening
Syrup made by maceration of flowers in water and adding sugar (sometimes called šabesa)
NUT
NUT
Syrup made with honey; oral administration with teaspoon
×
MED: treatment of cold
Fresh flowers cooked with pancake batter in a frying pan
NUT
NUT
Warm compress on the neck
×
MED: treatment of sore throat and cold
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
Fruit
Infusion, oral application
NUT: infusion has a strong color, for drinking in the winter
MED: treatment of liver problems, connected with nose bleeding
Jam
NUT
NUT
Juice or syrup, oral application
NUT
NUT: contains lots of iron, good for the blood
Liqueur with Teran wine, made by cooking elderberries in wine
NUT
×
Leaf
Leaf is placed on painful area (the skin under the leaf must sweat)
MED: treatment of painful or poisoned areas on the skin (for example, on the hand)
×
11
0
Satureja spp.
(Satureja montana L.
Satureja subspicata subsp. liburnica Šilić)
(Lamiaceae)
Kraški šetraj, žepek, ožepek, primožek
W
Aerial parts
Spice
NUT: spice for jota (soup), minestrone, vinegar, herb salt, meat, beans
×
6
6
Sedum maximum (L.) Suter
(Crassulaceae)
Hermelika
W/C
Aerial parts (leaf, flower)
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: treatment of stomach problems
NUT: aperitif
MED: treatment of stomach problems
NUT: aperitif
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
MED: treatment of varicose veins
×
Leaf
Fresh leaf is placed on the skin
MED: to heal wounds
MED: to heal wounds, furuncles, abscesses
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
7
6
Sempervivum tectorum L. (Crassulaceae)
Netresk, natresk
C
Leaf
Juice from the leaf is dripped into ear
MED: treatment of ear inflammation, ear infection and foot and toenail fungus infection
MED: treatment of ear inflammation and ear infection
2
1
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner
(Asteraceae)
Pegasti badelj
C
Seed
Whole or ground seeds, oral application
MED: good for the liver
MED: good for the liver
0
1
Solanum tuberosum L.
(Solanaceae)
Krompir
C
Tuber
Pieces of potato tuber are wrapped in fabric and lashed on the feet. When the potato becomes black, it pulls the fever out.
Egg and crushed flowers are mixed together and cooked in a frying pan
×
MED: treatment of diarrhea
9
7
Taraxacum officinale agg. F.H. Wigg.
(Cichoriaceae)
Regrat, radičkovna, pzdunkula
W
Leaf
Fresh leaves prepared in a salad, sometimes with eggs
NUT: contains lots of iron, good for intestines
NUT: contains lots of iron, counteracts anemia (informants did not eat dandelion leaves for medicinal purposes)
Dandelion leaves prepared like spinach or prepared together with spinach leaves. Used as soup or side dish to mashed potatoes
×
NUT
Flower
Infusion
×
NUT
Syrup, oral application
MED: treatment of sore throat, good for immune system
NUT
NUT
Root
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
×
MED: treatment of stomach problems
Maceration in schnapps, topical application
×
COS: for lush hair
20
9
Thymus serpyllum L.
(Lamiaceae)
Materina dušica
W
Aerial parts
Infusion, oral application
MED: good for the heart and respiratory system, treatment of cold and gynecological problems (menstrual cramps)
NUT
MED: infusion for breastfeeding mothers
NUT
Spice
NUT
NUT
Maceration in schnapps
NUT
×
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
16
20
Tilia spp.
(Tilia cordata Mill.
Tilia platyphyllos Scop.)
(Tiliaceae)
Lipa
C
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of cold, to reduce a fever, diaphoretic
NUT
MED: treatment of cold, diaphoretic
NUT: for every day, in the morning and evening, has a good taste
Sleep pillow filled with linden flowers
×
HOUSEHOLD: pillow for sleeping
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
1
5
Trifolium spp.
(some informants used species with white flowers and some used species with red flowers)
(Fabaceae)
Rdeča detelja, bela detelja, črna detelja
W
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: to heal gynecological problems
NUT
4
11
Tussilago farfara L. (Asteraceae)
Lapuh
W
Flower
Infusion, oral application
MED: treatment of sore throat and bronchitis, good for lungs
MED: treatment of cold and cough, good for respiratory system
Leaf
Fresh leaves are wrapped around the legs
×
MED: treatment of leg pain
Leaf
Cooked leaves
×
VET: pig feed
Flower and leaf
Herbal liqueur (Jegermajster)
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
13
17
Urtica dioica L.
(Urticaceae)
Kopriva
W
Leaves on the top, nettle tops
Infusion, oral application
MED: diuretic, to cleanse blood and body, spring and autumn cleansing, counteracts rheumatism, good for the stomach
MED: to cleanse body and blood, diuretic, to cleanse skin, to heal acne, laxative, treatment of diabetes
NUT: contains lots of iron
Infusion for hair rinsing
COS: to cleanse hair
MED: treatment of hair loss
COS: for lush hair
Infusion for bath
×
MED: treatment of tired legs
COS: to treat hard skin
Nettle tops prepared like spinach: soup or side dish to mashed potatoes
NUT
NUT: contains many vitamins and lots of iron, for anemia
Root
Maceration in schnapps, topical application on scalp
×
COS: to promote good blood circulation of scalp, for lush hair
Infusion for hair rinsing
COS: for strong hair
×
Aerial parts
Maceration in water for two days
×
OTHER: fertilizer for the garden
Aerial parts of young plants
Cooked
VET: feed for pigs
×
2
15
Vaccinium myrtillus L.
(Ericaceae)
Borovnice
W
Fruit
Infusion from dried blueberries, oral administration
×
MED: treatment of diarrhea
VET: treatment of diarrhea (calf)
Dried fruits for chewing and eating, oral administration
×
MED: treatment of diarrhea
Compote from dried fruits, oral administration
×
MED: treatment of diarrhea
Maceration in schnapps, oral administration
MED: treatment of diarrhea
NUT
MED: treatment of stomach problems
NUT
Jam
×
NUT
Leaf
Infusion, oral administration
×
MED: to lower the blood sugar level, treatment of diabetes
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
1
1
Valeriana officinalis L.
(Valerianaceae)
Baldrijan
W
Root
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
4
0
Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. (Scrophulariaceae)
Lučnik, papeževa sveča
C
Flower
Infusion, oral administration
MED: treatment of sore throat
×
Maceration in olive oil, topical application
MED: to massage painful joints (rheumatism)
×
Maceration in schnapps, oral application
MED: treatment of cough and flu, good for lungs
×
1
7
Viola spp.
(Violaceae)
Vijolica
W
Flower
Infusion, oral application
NUT
MED: treatment of cough
NUT
Herbal liqueur
NUT/MED
NUT/MED
0
3
Viscum album L. (Viscaceae)
Bela omela
W
Leaf
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: antihypertensive, good for the stomach
Fruit
Glue from cooked fruits applied on a stick
×
OTHER: household agent for catching flies
1
0
Vitis vinifera L.
(Vitaceae)
Grozdje
C
Fruit
Vinegar for inhalation
MED: inhaled to prevent cold
×
0
1
Zea mays L.
(Poaceae)
Koruza
C
Silk
Infusion, oral application
×
MED: treatment of urinary tract inflammation
On
average, the informants reported 20 different plants per interview in
both regions (Karst: standard deviation 5.9, max. 30, min. 9; Gorjanci:
standard deviation 10.4, max. 42, min. 6). Altogether, the informants
made 493 reports of collected plants in Karst and 490 in Gorjanci. The
informants in both regions reported 47 wild plants, 12 plants that grow
wild and can be cultivated and 35 cultivated plants, although they were
asked to list the plants that they collected in the wild. Listing of
cultivated plants instead of plants collected in the wild has also been
observed in other studies [38, 54];
it is likely that informants mentally link the reported wild-collected
plants to homemade remedies and then remember other plants that are also
used for home remedies, although they are cultivated. It is also
possible that they cultivate some plants that are primarily found in the
wild [38].
List of plants reported by at least 3 informants in Karst or Gorjanci, with their frequency, rank and Smith’s salience index
Karst
Gorjanci
Plant
Freq.
Rank
Smith’s S
Plant
Freq.
Rank
Smith’s S
Sambucus nigra
24
4.5
0.794
Sambucus nigra
24
6.38
0.694
Salvia officinalis
22
11.45
0.448
Achillea millefolium
20
10
0.462
Rosa spp.
22
10.36
0.491
Tilia spp.
20
7.65
0.541
Thymus serpyllum
20
7.05
0.552
Matricaria chamomilla
19
10.05
0.465
Mentha spp.
18
8.22
0.458
Urtica dioica
17
8.24
0.398
Melissa officinalis
18
8.17
0.475
Hypericum perforatum
16
7.44
0.478
Matricaria chamomilla
16
11.44
0.329
Rosa spp.
16
17.25
0.200
Tilia spp.
16
7.13
0.439
Centaurium spp.
15
11.07
0.376
Achillea millefolium
14
10.29
0.328
Vaccinium myrtillus
15
14.67
0.259
Urtica dioica
13
9.85
0.300
Fragaria vesca
13
11.92
0.257
Crataegus spp.
13
9.08
0.335
Arnica montana
12
14.08
0.227
Foeniculum vulgare
13
12.69
0.241
Calendula officinalis
12
11.25
0.296
Juniperus communis
12
12.5
0.225
Primula vulgaris
12
8.5
0.301
Satureja spp.
11
9.64
0.252
Tussilago farfara
11
11.09
0.235
Centaurium spp.
11
12.36
0.216
Salvia officinalis
11
10.45
0.245
Hypericum perforatum
11
11.45
0.243
Equisetum arvense
10
14.8
0.203
Rosmarinus officinalis
11
11.36
0.224
Betula pendula
10
16.3
0.158
Rubus spp.
11
12.64
0.202
Picea abies
10
13.2
0.200
Prunus spinosa
10
11.7
0.207
Thymus serpyllum
9
9.22
0.228
Plantago spp.
10
11.4
0.208
Juglans regia
9
20.67
0.096
Laurus nobilis
9
16.56
0.087
Juniperus communis
9
19.33
0.121
Taraxacum officinale agg.
9
10
0.178
Plantago spp.
9
12.89
0.192
Calendula officinalis
9
10.78
0.197
Rubus spp.
8
15.38
0.157
Cornus mas
8
13.5
0.149
Mentha spp.
8
8
0.229
Origanum majorana
8
9.13
0.182
Viola spp.
7
9.86
0.178
Artemisia spp.
7
14.14
0.122
Taraxacum officinale agg.
7
21.86
0.095
Lavandula spp.
7
11.14
0.162
Carum carvi
7
12.71
0.166
Sempervivum tectorum
7
16
0.096
Melissa officinalis
7
8.43
0.209
Picea abies
6
13.33
0.080
Pulmonaria officinalis
7
11.29
0.184
Asparagus spp.
6
12.5
0.079
Sempervivum tectorum
6
13.83
0.110
Althaea officinalis
6
13.67
0.091
Potentilla erecta
6
18.83
0.097
Ruta graveolens
6
18.67
0.077
Sedum maximum
6
18
0.088
Sedum maximum
6
12.67
0.103
Crataegus spp.
6
7.83
0.167
Arnica montana
6
12.17
0.108
Artemisia spp.
6
22.67
0.068
Robinia pseudacacia
5
20.4
0.028
Quercus spp.
6
19
0.077
Fragaria vesca
5
15.4
0.087
Trifolium spp.
5
11.6
0.106
Aloysia citrodora
5
13
0.073
Pimpinella anisum
5
9.4
0.138
Prunus avium
4
17.25
0.016
Prunus spinosa
5
12.2
0.109
Tussilago farfara
4
15.5
0.069
Rubus idaeus
5
12.8
0.100
Anthyllis vulneraria
4
8.25
0.117
Bellis perennis
4
12
0.104
Levisticum officinale
4
13
0.07
Solidago spp.
4
13
0.085
Verbascum densiflorum
4
15.25
0.081
Origanum vulgare
4
9.75
0.068
Ocimum basilicum
3
10.33
0.061
Castanea sativa
4
17.25
0.055
Gentiana lutea
3
14
0.055
Allium ursinum
4
17.25
0.035
Aesculus hippocastanum
3
8.67
0.067
Symphytum officinale
3
13.33
0.055
Carum carvi
3
18.67
0.022
Berberis vulgaris
3
9.33
0.060
Tanacetum parthenium
3
17.33
0.010
Viscum album
3
24
0.028
Pimpinella anisum
3
12.33
0.061
Linum usitatissimum
3
23
0.029
Primula vulgaris
3
16
0.054
Robinia pseudacacia
3
25
0.038
Galium odoratum
3
26
0.028
Plant species that were reported in only one of the two regions are printed in bold
were mentioned frequently and were
mentioned early in the interview (low rank); the frequency and rank were
significantly correlated in both Gorjanci and Karst (Pearson’s
correlation p = 0.0007 and p < 0.00001,
respectively). The important plants had also a high Smith’s salience
index, which quantifies the importance of a plant in relation to its
frequency and order of mention (rank) in free-listing [52].
Many plants were distinctive for one or a few informants. In each
region, approximately 64% of the plants were mentioned by fewer than 7
informants, and approximately 36% of the plants were mentioned by at
least 7 informants. The informants mentioned 49 plants in Karst and 52
in Gorjanci that had a frequency of 1 to 6; in addition, they mentioned
28 plants in Karst and 29 in Gorjanci that had a frequency of 7 to 24
(Table 3).
The above-mentioned results show that some plants were mentioned very
frequently, and many plants were mentioned by a few informants. The
frequency of mention decreased gradually, and there was no noticeable
break in the frequency of mention between plants mentioned by many
informants and plants mentioned by just a few informants; therefore, a
small group of important plants for each region could not be obtained [48].
The most frequently reported plant was Sambucus nigra; 24 informants in Karst and 24 informants in Gorjanci (K: 24; G: 24) reported use of this plant. S. nigra has also been frequently reported in northern Italy [55] and in some parts of Austria [37, 56], Croatia [57, 58] and Bosnia and Herzegovina [59]. Other frequently reported plants were Rosa spp., Salvia officinalis, Thymus serpyllum, Mentha spp., Melissa officinalis, Matricaria chamomilla, and Tilia spp. in Karst and Achillea millefolium, Tilia spp., Matricaria chamomilla, Urtica dioica, Hypericum perforatum, Rosa spp., Centaurium spp., and Vaccinium myrtillus in Gorjanci. The above-mentioned plants were reported by at least 15 informants in one region (Table 4). These plants belong to the European ethnomedicinal flora; some of them (e.g., Sambucus nigra and Urtica dioica)
are common and abundant wild species with a wide distribution area and
frequent use, while others are widely used cultivated plants, e.g., Matricaria recutita and Tilia spp. [60].
In
a comparison of plants reported in Slovenia and those reported in
ethnobotanical studies in Austria, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina,
many similarities were observed. Many plants reported in our study were
also reported in Austria: 22 out of 27 wild-collected food plants in a
hilly area in Styria [61], 48 out of 76 wild or cultivated plants reported in the Alpine valley Grosses Walsertal [37], and 28 out of 64 wild-collected plants in Kartitsch (eastern Tyrol) [54]). Approximately half of the listed plants in Serbia were also reported in Slovenia: 46 out of 69 in southwestern Serbia [62], 23 out of 45 in Mt. Rtanj (eastern Serbia) [63], 60 out of 128 on Suva Planina mountain (southeastern Serbia) [64], and 38 out of 83 on Kopaonik Mountain (central Serbia) [65].
Similar use of plants was also observed in Bosnia and Herzegovina: 76
out of 254 wild and cultivated medicinal plants in eastern, northern and
northeastern Bosnia and Herzegovina [59]; and 73 out of 228 wild and cultivated medicinal plants in central, southern and western Bosnia and Herzegovina [66].
We did not observe any important plants used in any of the two studied
areas that had not been previously reported in the above-mentioned
neighboring areas.
While
the focus of our study was the medicinal use of plants, the informants
did not make a clear distinction between medicinal and nutritive uses
and reported a broad spectrum of uses. We classified these uses into
several categories. The most frequently reported uses of plants were
medicinal and nutritive: 81 plants were used as medicine, and 63 plants
were used as food. Purely medicinal use was reported for 29 plants,
purely nutritive use was reported for 11 plants, and a combination of
medicinal and nutritive uses was reported for 52 plants. Other uses were
less frequently reported: 17 plants were used for animal healthcare and
8 for cosmetic use. These uses were almost always mentioned together
with nutritive or medicinal use.
Comparison of plants reported in Karst and Gorjanci
A comparison of the frequency distributions of the plants reported in Karst and Gorjanci (Fig. 2)
showed that there were plants reported with similar or different
frequencies in both regions. The 54 plants with a low frequency
(mentioned by fewer than 7 informants in both regions) (Fig. 2,
section D) were not included in this comparison. The plants whose
frequency in one region was 3-fold higher than that in the other region
were considered typical for that region. The plants that were typical
for Karst were Foeniculum vulgare, Satureja spp., Rosmarinus officinalis, Laurus nobilis, Cornus mas, Origanum majorana and Lavandula spp. (Fig. 2, section B1). The plants that were typical for Gorjanci were Vaccinium myrtillus, Primula vulgaris, Equisetum arvense, Betula pendula, Juglans regia, Pulmonaria officinalis and Viola spp. (Fig. 2,
section C1). Of the plants with a high frequency (mentioned by more
than 15 informants in at least one region), no plants were typical for
only one region (Fig. 2,
sections B2 and C2). In both regions, 25 plants were reported equally
or up to 3-fold higher in one region than in the other (Fig. 2, plants in section A). These plants were considered regionally non-typical.
Fig. 2
Comparison of the
frequency distribution of plants reported by 25 informants in Gorjanci
and 25 informants in Karst. Frequencies below 7 are considered low,
those from 7 to 15 mid, and those from 16 to 25 high. Plants that were
reported by at least 7 informants in one region are represented by a dot
with the plant’s scientific name. Due to the high number of plants,
those with frequencies lower than 7 in both regions are not represented
by a dot; they lie in section D. The middle blue line represents plants with equal frequencies in both regions. The other blue lines represent plants with frequencies that were threefold higher in one region than in the other
Laurus nobilis, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Origanum majorana
were typical for Karst but were also reported in Gorjanci. These plants
are part of the Mediterranean flora and are somewhat cold sensitive;
therefore, they are more widely and easily cultivated in house gardens
in Karst due to suitable growing conditions. They were mostly used as
kitchen spices. Satureja spp., Cornus mas and Foeniculum vulgare were also typical plants for Karst and were not reported in Gorjanci. They grow wild in Karst but not in Gorjanci [67]. Foeniculum vulgare was also sometimes cultivated in house gardens in Karst for easier accessibility. Lavandula
spp. was also typical for Karst. It was mostly used as an ornamental
plant, but two informants in Karst reported that they were cultivating Lavandula spp. in fields and wanted to start producing lavender essential oil. It seems that Lavandula spp. has become an interesting plant for small businesses in Karst in recent years due to suitable growing conditions [68]. Therefore, it is very likely that Lavandula
spp. was more frequently reported in Karst than in Gorjanci due to this
plant’s growing popularity. Guštin Grilanc also reported the use of the
above-mentioned seven plants in Karst [30], but Lokar and Poldini reported only the use Satureja montana in Trieste Karst [29].
Vaccinium myrtillus, Equisetum arvense, Betula pendula and Pulmonaria officinalis
were typical for Gorjanci and were rarely or not mentioned in Karst.
This finding is probably because they grow wild in Gorjanci but are
scarce in Karst [67]. Makarovič reported the use of the above-mentioned plants in Dolenjska and Bela Krajina [32]. Lokar and Podini reported only the use of Pulmonaria officinalis in Trieste Karst [29], and Guštin Grilanc reported only Equisetum arvense in Karst [30].
Primula vulgaris and Viola spp. have a wide distribution area in Slovenia and grow in both research areas (Karst and Gorjanci) [67].
Therefore, it was unexpected that these plants were observed to be
typical for Gorjanci in our research. Makarovič did not report their use
in Dolenjska or Bela Krajina [32], but Guštin Grilanc reported the use of both plants in Karst; Lokar and Poldini also reported the use of Primula vulgaris in Trieste Karst [29].
This
comparison indicates that there is a relatively homogeneous tradition
of medicinal plant use in both areas, with minor regional differences.
The regional differences for wild-collected plants are mostly due to
ecological availability (all plants were not ubiquitously available in
Karst and Gorjanci). The importance of ecological availability for
comparison was previously shown in a comparative study of wild food
plant consumption in Italy [55].
In addition to ecological availability, suitable growing conditions
(climate and soil) were also important or essential for the cultivation
of medicinal plants. In this regard, vicinity to the Adriatic Sea and
Mediterranean flora plays a major role for Karst; in contrast, the
continental climate in Gorjanci prevents the cultivation of
cold-sensitive plants. We did not find that cultural differences played a
role in the regional differences in the use of plant species.
Medicinal use of plants in Karst and Gorjanci
General data on the medicinal use of plants
The plants that were reported in Karst and Gorjanci were grouped into 8 categories according to their therapeutic use (Table 5)
Table 5
Categories of medicinal use of plants in Karst and Gorjanci with the number of reports and plants in each region
Disease or action of the medicine
No. of plants reported in Karst
No. of reports in Karst
No. of plants reported in Gorjanci
No. of reports in Gorjanci
No. of plants reported in Karst and Gorjanci
No. of reports in Karst and Gorjanci
Respiratory system disorders
17
58
19
88
26
146
Cold
9
28
12
33
16
61
Cough
5
9
12
21
14
30
Sore throat
7
12
6
14
10
26
“Good for lungs” and “good for respiratory system”
3
4
5
8
7
12
Bronchitis
4
4
2
3
5
7
Flu
1
1
3
3
4
4
Asthma
0
0
2
2
2
2
Breathing problems
0
0
2
2
2
2
Pneumonia
0
0
1
1
1
1
Angina
0
0
1
1
1
1
Gastrointestinal disorders
18
50
25
87
29
137
Carminative (digestive problems, spasms, stomach pain, and flatulence)
16
43
21
67
25
110
Against diarrhea
4
6
7
15
9
21
Appetite stimulation
1
1
2
2
3
3
Laxative
0
0
2
3
2
3
Skin diseases
12
35
14
59
20
94
Wounds
10
17
8
30
14
47
Burns and sunburns
3
7
3
10
3
17
Furuncles and abscess
0
0
4
7
4
7
Warts
2
3
1
2
2
5
Contusions and bruises
3
3
2
2
3
5
Rash and eczema
1
1
2
2
2
3
Rubefacient
1
2
1
1
2
3
Scabs
1
1
1
1
2
2
Stings
0
0
2
2
2
2
Snake bites
1
1
0
0
1
1
Sweaty feet
0
0
1
1
1
1
Inflamed nipples
0
0
1
1
1
1
Genitourinary system disorders
9
24
11
39
14
63
Diuretic, “cleansing of body, kidneys and blood”
4
14
6
22
8
36
Gynecological problems
5
10
5
8
6
18
Urinary tract inflammation
0
0
5
9
5
9
Miscellaneous infections
6
24
12
32
13
56
Ear infection
1
7
1
5
1
12
Fever
2
2
7
8
7
10
Mouth inflammation
1
5
2
5
2
10
Eye infection
2
1
2
8
3
9
Diaphoretic
2
5
1
3
2
8
Anthelmintic
1
3
2
3
2
6
Fungal nail infection
1
1
0
0
1
1
Musculoskeletal system disorders
9
15
11
20
14
35
Muscle or joint pain in various body parts
4
5
2
6
5
11
Rheumatism
4
5
4
7
6
11
Pain in legs
2
2
4
4
6
6
Pain in the back
2
2
0
0
2
2
Pain in hands
0
0
1
1
1
1
Weak spine of children
1
1
0
0
1
1
Knee effusion
0
0
1
1
1
1
Swollen legs
0
0
1
1
1
1
Nervous system disorders
6
18
5
17
9
35
Calmative
5
15
5
11
7
26
Sleep disorders
1
2
3
5
4
7
Epilepsy
1
1
0
0
1
1
Depression
0
0
1
1
1
1
Heart, blood and circulatory system disorders
8
21
6
9
13
30
Heart trouble
3
13
2
4
4
17
Varicose veins
3
4
1
1
3
5
High blood pressure
1
1
2
3
3
4
Anemia
2
2
0
0
2
2
Hemorrhoids
1
1
0
0
1
1
Against blood clotting
0
0
1
1
1
1
Groups of diseases are labeled in bold
. The highest number of plants was
used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory system
disorders and skin diseases. These categories also had the highest
number of use reports. This finding is comparable to recent reports from
southern Italy [40, 41, 42] and to reports from Adam Fisher, who collected traditional uses of plants in western Ukraine in the 1930s [69].
However, the distribution of uses in Bosnia and Herzegovina was
slightly different, with urogenital indications being the most frequent [66, 70].
The differences may be due to different methodologies or conditions in
the region. The informants also reported using plants for genitourinary
system disorders, miscellaneous infections, and musculoskeletal system
disorders. The informants made the lowest number of reports for the
treatment of heart, blood and circulatory system disorders, and they
used the lowest number of plants to treat nervous system disorders. For
different diseases, we observed different ratios between the number of
reports and the number of plants: e.g., for the treatment of ear
infection, we obtained 12 reports on the use of only one plant (in both
regions); in contrast, 10 informants reported 7 different plants for the
treatment of fever and 6 informants reported 6 different plants for the
treatment of leg pain.
Differences in the medicinal use of plants in Karst and Gorjanci
Differences
in the reported medicinal use (indication) of some frequently collected
plants were observed between Karst and Gorjanci. These regional
differences could be explained by cultural differences, which were
possibly due to proximity to neighboring areas. Matricaria chamomilla
was used by 16 informants in Karst and 19 in Gorjanci. While most
informants in Karst reported its use as a sedative (calmative) (K: 7; G:
1), most of the Gorjanci informants reported its use for the treatment
of respiratory infections (cold, flu, bronchitis, sore throat, or cough)
(K: 1; G: 6), sore eyes (K: 2; G: 9), dysmenorrhea (K: 1; G: 4) or as a
carminative (K: 5; G: 13). The difference between the regions was
statistically significant (Fisher’s exact test p = 0.010). Lokar and Poldini also reported that M. chamomilla was used as a sedative in Trieste Karst and Istria [29], but Guštin Grilanc did not report this use in Karst [30]. Similarly, some ethnobotanical studies in Austria and Croatia reported that M. chamomilla was used as a sedative [56, 71], but some did not [37, 72]. M. chamomilla was widely reported as a sedative in Italy [40, 73, 74].
Altogether,
25 different plants were used as a carminative: 16 in Karst and 21 in
Gorjanci. The treatment of poor digestion, spasms, stomach pain, and
flatulence (carminative) was more frequently reported with Juniperus communis (G: 5; K: 9) in Karst and with Juglans regia (G: 6; K: 0), Centaurium spp. (G: 12; K: 5) and M. chamomilla (G: 13; K: 5) in Gorjanci; this difference was statistically significant (Fisher’s exact test p = 0.024). Lokar and Poldini did not mention the medicinal use of J. communis or J. regia in Trieste Karst, but they reported the medicinal use of infusion of Centaurium erythraea as a bitter tonic in Istria and as a decoction for the treatment of gastritis in Trieste Karst. In that study, decoction of Satureja montana was reported as a bitter tonic in Trieste Karst and alcoholic macerate as a tonic aromatic in Trieste Karst and Istria [29]; in our study, the informants in Karst reported only the nutritive use of Satureja spp.
Among the 8 medicinal plants that were reported for the treatment of diarrhea, Vaccinium myrtillus
was the only plant that was reported by more than two informants. Its
antidiarrheal use was reported by 10 informants, and most of the reports
were from Gorjanci (K: 1; G: 9). V. myrtillus was more frequently mentioned in Gorjanci than in Karst (G: 15; K: 2), which is probably due to the scarcity of V. myrtillus in Karst and its presence in Gorjanci [67]. In the previous studies, the use of V. myrtillus was also not reported in Karst [30] or Trieste Karst [29] but was reported in Dolenjska and Bela Krajina, where it was also used for the treatment of diarrhea and stomachache [32].
Sambucus nigra
was the most frequently mentioned plant (K: 24; G: 24). While most of
the informants in Gorjanci reported its use for the treatment of
respiratory infections (cold, flu, angina, or high fever, and as a
diaphoretic) (G: 14; K: 5), most of the informants in Karst used it
merely for nutritive purposes (G: 10; K: 18); this difference was
statistically significant (Fisher’s exact test p = 0.017). Lokar and Poldini also did not report any medicinal use of S. nigra in Trieste Karst [29], but Guštin Grilanc reported its use against cough and cold in Karst [30]. In Dolenjska and Bela Krajina, its use was reported for sore throat, cough, cold, and high fever [32].
Salvia officinalis
was reported in both regions for gargling and for the treatment of sore
throat, mouth infection, and mouth inflammation (K: 11; G: 9) but was
more frequently reported for the treatment of colds in Karst than in
Gorjanci (K: 9; G: 2). S. officinalis, S. nigra, and Tilia spp. were the most frequently reported plants used for the treatment of colds. Tilia spp. was reported in both regions (K: 7; G: 4); S. officinalis was more frequently reported in Karst (K: 9; G: 2); and S. nigra was more frequently reported in Gorjanci (G: 11; K: 3). Rosa
spp. was seldom reported for the treatment of colds (G: 3; K: 2). Its
use was more often reported merely due its nutritive value (G: 19; K:
12), and some informants reported that it was beneficial due to its
(high) content of vitamin C (G: 7; K: 6).
Continuity between nutritive and medicinal use
In
a number of plants, medicinal and nutritive uses were interconnected
because approximately 50% of the plants were reported for both medicinal
and nutritive purposes. Frequently, the same informant reported
medicinal and nutritive uses of the same plant, plant part and plant
preparation. In addition, properties that promote health, e.g., a high
content of vitamin C, were also reported for plants. There seems to be a
continuous passage between the nutritive and medicinal uses of plants
since it is the informant’s intended use that determines whether the
plant is a food or a medicine.
Four plants were reported for use in association with the urinary tract: Urtica dioica, Asparagus spp., Equisetum arvense and Betula pendula.
A comparison of their use shows that some plants were more often
reported as food, and some were more commonly used for the treatment of
urinary infections (Table 6)
Table 6
Comparison of the reported uses of plants that were collected in Karst and Gorjanci
Plant
No. of informants
Reported uses in Karst and Gorjanci
Karst
Gorjanci
Food
Cleansing of the body, blood and kidneys; diuretic properties
Treatment of urinary infections
Urtica dioica
13
17
14
15
0
Asparagus spp.
6
0
6
5
0
Equisetum arvense
2
10
2
10
10
Betula pendula
0
6
0
6
6
.
For the above-mentioned plants, the informants also reported properties
such as cleansing of the body, blood and kidneys and diuretic
properties, which were mentioned together with purely nutritive or
purely medicinal uses. Some plants were predominantly used for one
purpose or the other. Two informants who used E. arvense for nutritive purposes added it to an herbal liqueur made from many plants (“Jegermajster”).
The phenomenon of people using the same plants as food and as medicine has been observed in many cultures [75, 76, 77, 78].
In theory, the basic characteristics of plants that influence their
categorization are their nutritive value and medicinal or health
benefits, which are beyond basic nutrition [79].
In practice, some constituents (e.g., vitamin C) have both nutritive
and therapeutic benefits, and some plants that do not contain important
nutrients are used as food (e.g., as herbal tea for refreshment).
Furthermore, whether a plant is consumed as food or as medicine is also
based on local beliefs, perceptions and intention of use [78].
The case of garlic, which became a legal matter in the European Court,
demonstrates that the border between the use of a plant as a food and
medicine can be unclear [80].
Medicinal plants in animal healthcare
Studies
of ethnoveterinary medicine have been conducted in many European
countries, and they are important for the preservation of traditional
knowledge and the identification of alternatives for the treatment of
animal diseases [81, 82, 83, 84].
Our research did not focus on ethnoveterinary medicine, but a small
number of medicinal plants used for animal health and welfare were
reported in the interviews. The informants in Gorjanci and Karst
mentioned the use of 14 plants in animal healthcare and three as animal
feed (Table 3). The most frequently reported medicinal plants for animals were Matricaria chamomilla (K: 0; G: 6) and Quercus spp. (K: 1; G: 4); other plants were reported by one or two informants. In Gorjanci, infusion of M. chamomilla was reported for the treatment of digestive problems in livestock; it was also given to cows after calving. The bark of Quercus spp. was reported for the treatment of diarrhea in livestock. M. chamomilla and Quercus spp. are among the most frequently mentioned species in European ethnoveterinary studies [83].
Most of the plants were reported for the treatment of gastrointestinal problems: in addition to the bark of Quercus spp., dried fruits of Vaccinium myrtillus (in calves), flowers of Tanacetum vulgare and leaves of Rubus spp. (species with black fruits) (in livestock) were reported for diarrhea; the infusion of flowers and herbs of Centaurium spp. (in livestock), roots of Gentiana lutea (in livestock), flowers of T. vulgare, flowers and herbs of M. chamomilla (in livestock) and schnapps macerate of Juglans regia were reported for the treatment of digestive problems; the oil macerate of Hypericum perforatum flowers was reported for the treatment of indigestion in hens that had eaten too much sand; Artemisia spp. was reported for the treatment of low appetite in livestock; and the root of Tamus communis was reported for the treatment of a cow with intestinal problems that became malnourished and cachectic. The infusion of Pimpinella anisum
fruits was reported for the treatment of mastitis (udder inflammation)
in cows. An informant in Gorjanci reported the use of bread with a few
drops of essential oil from fermented berry cones of Juniper communis to treat a sick bullock, which immediately felt better and could stand up. Water extract from cooked leaves of J. regia was applied to a bullock’s skin to protect the animal from horseflies. A schnapps macerate and a water infusion of Inula hirta flowers were reported for the treatment of a dog with a snake bite. Aerial parts of Cannabis sativa, acorns of Quercus spp. and cooked leaves of Tussilago farfara were reported as pig feed.
The use of nine medicinal plants was the same in humans and animals. In the case of Inula hirta and Juniperus communis,
the informants illustrated and augmented their claims for the
effectiveness of the medicinal plant with an example of treating a sick
animal with the preparation of that plant. Similarly, an informant from
Gorjanci emphasized the high medicinal value of Centaurium
spp. by reporting that the animal (cow) was healthier if it fed on
grass containing centaury. This statement could also be understood to
mean that feeding is vital for animal welfare [84].
We did not observe the use of any important plants in animals, which
was not previously reported in the above-mentioned literature.
Medicinal preparations
Informants in Karst and Gorjanci reported a high number of medicinal preparations for oral and topical applications (Tables 7 and 8)
Table 7
Medicinal preparations for oral application reported in Karst and Gorjanci
Preparation method
No. of plants
Fresh and dried plant material
Dried fruits
3
Raw fruits
1
Juice
1
Leaf for chewing
1
Seeds
1
Bulb
1
Heat-processed plant material
Infusion
48
Decoction
1
Compote from dried fruits
2
Leaves cooked in (caramel) milk
2
Cooked in wine
1
Roux soup with eggs and flowers
1
Egg omelet with plant material
3
Eggs cooked in a frying pan and sprinkled with flowers
1
Distillation
Essential oil
1
Alcoholic distillate
1
Maceration
Maceration in schnapps
16
Maceration in wine
2
Syrup
9
Table 8
Medicinal preparations for topical application reported in Karst and Gorjanci
Preparation method
No. of plants
Skin
Fresh plant material
Fresh plant material is placed on the skin
10
Latex
2
Resin
1
Heat-processed plant material
Ointment made with lard
2
Fried plant material
1
Poultice made from cooked plant material
2
Infusion for warm compress
1
Infusion
2
Infusion for bath
3
Cooked in wine
1
Distillation
Essential oil
1
Alcoholic distillate
1
Maceration
Maceration in oil
5
Maceration in schnapps
10
Eyes
Heat-processed plant material
Infusion for eye rinsing and compress
1
Fresh plant material
Seed is placed in eye
1
Lungs
Heat-processed plant material
Infusion for inhalation
3
Fermentation
Vinegar for inhalation
1
Ears
Fresh plant material
Juice is dripped into ear
1
.
However, the large number of preparations does not reflect the
relevance of use, as some preparations were reported by all informants
and some by a single informant. The list merely reflects the versatility
of the preparations described in the interviews.
For
oral application, informants reported 15 different methods of preparing
the plant material. Most of the methods included heat processing or
maceration; the use of unprocessed fresh or dried plants was reported
for only eight plants. Infusions, alcoholic macerates and syrups were
the prevailing preparations for many of the reported plants; the
remaining 12 preparations were specific for one to three plants (Table 7).
Most of the preparations for topical application were reported for
skin, and only a few preparations were reported for eyes, ears or lungs
(Table 8).
The large number of different skin preparations might be associated
with the considerable number of plants reported for skin diseases, as 20
were reported in both regions (Table 5).
The plants that were used for skin were mainly prepared by maceration
in oil or schnapps, or fresh plant material was applied to the skin.
Alcoholic distillate (“brinjevec”) and essential oil (“brinjevo olje”) of Juniperus communis
are of special interest because they have likely been known for
centuries in the territory of Slovenia. “Brinjevec” is a protected
spirit drink with a geographical indication; it was mentioned in 1689 by
Janez Vajkard Valvasor in Die Ehre dess Hertzogthums Crain and is made by distilling fermented juniper berries from J. communis. The side product of this distillation is an essential oil [85].
The medicinal use of the essential oil was reported in both regions; it
was used internally and externally. The external use of distilled oil
from J. communis was reported by Istro-Romanians in Žejane, northeastern Istria, Croatia [71]; Croatians living Čičarija, northern Istria, reported the internal use of the alcoholic distillate [72].
In
Karst and Gorjanci, five women aged 65 to 87 years reported the
medicinal use of three common Slovenian dishes: browned flour soup
(“prežganka” in Slovene), egg omelet (“omleta” in Slovene; “frtalja” in
Karst), and eggs cooked in a frying pan. The dishes were used
medicinally for the treatment of gastrointestinal problems and
dysmenorrhea when prepared with the following plants: Achillea millefolium, Ruta graveolens, Tanacetum vulgare and Matricaria chamomilla (Table 3).
This information might be of special interest since the concomitant use
of these plants and food (eggs) might alter the body’s response to the
medicine compared to using an infusion of the plant.
Two
women aged 79 and 87 years from villages in the foothills of Gorjanci
reported several unusual medicinal preparations made from plant, fungal,
and animal materials: a necklace made from garlic cloves (Allium sativum)
was used as an anthelmintic; pig feces was used to heal furuncles and
abscesses; humane urine was used to disinfect wounds; pork cracklings
(fried bacon cubes in lard) were used to heal scabs; snails were used to
heal warts; and sour yeast (known as “kravajc” in Gorjanci) made from
corn flour, millet chaff and wine foam was used to treat pain. A small
loaf of “kravajc” was wetted with warm water and lashed on the sole of
the foot to relieve foot pain (“kravajc pulled the pain out of the
foot”).
A
few informants (K: 1; G: 3) reported the preparation of herbal
liqueurs. They collected different plants from spring to autumn and
macerated them in homemade schnapps. The informants in Gorjanci called
this liqueur “jegermajster” (similar to the name of the commercial
aperitif Jägermeister), and the informants in Karst called it “bitter”.
It was used for nutritive purposes and to treat digestive problems and
stomachaches. The informants reported using the following plants for the
liqueur: Achillea millefolium, Aesculus hippocastanum, Althaea officinalis, Anthyllis vulneraria, Arnica montana, Artemisia spp., Bellis perennis, Calendula officinalis, Castanea sativa, Centaurium spp., Equisetum arvense, Fragaria vesca, Galium odoratum, Hypericum perforatum, Juglans regia, Juniperus communis, Matricaria chamomilla, Melissa officinalis, Mentha spp., Plantago spp., Potentilla erecta, Primula vulgaris, Pulmonaria officinalis, Robinia pseudacacia, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rubus idaeus, Rubus spp. (species with black fruits), Ruta graveolens, Sambucus nigra, Thymus serpyllum, Tilia spp., Tussilago farfara, Vaccinium myrtillus, Valeriana officinalis, and Viola spp. (Table 3).
Sources of knowledge about plants
The
transmission of knowledge about medicinal plants (which includes
behaviors, attitudes, or technologies) is a complex process. We can
distinguish between different transmission processes between
individuals, e.g., from parent to child and between members of the same
generation [86, 87].
Ethnobotanical studies have mainly focused on individuals as
transmitters of knowledge; however, in literate societies, media such as
books, television, journals and the internet are also important [88, 89] since this type of transmission can bring very rapid cultural change [87].
In
Slovenia, many books were published about medicinal plants in the
twentieth century, and they could easily influence the folk knowledge
about plants. A general question, “Where did you get your knowledge
about plants?” was posed to the informants to determine whether books or
other media had influenced their knowledge. Media as non-oral sources
were important for the botanical knowledge of the informants, as 20
informants in Karst and 12 in Gorjanci reported them. Books were
frequently reported in both regions, whereas television, magazines,
newspapers, the internet and radio were rarely reported (Table 9)
Table 9
Sources of knowledge about plants for informants in Karst and Gorjanci
No. of informants in Karst
No. of informants in Gorjanci
Oral sources - relatives
Mother
8
9
Father
0
2
Parents
0
2
Grandmother
5
5
Grandfather
0
1
Grandparents
1
0
Sister
1
0
Brother
0
1
Aunt
1
0
Uncle
1
0
Mother-in-law
1
3
Sister-in-law
0
1
Cousin (female)
0
1
Relatives (in general)
1
0
Oral sources - non-relatives
Neighbors
0
3
Neighbor - woman
0
2
Neighbor - man
1
0
Friends
1
0
Woman friend
3
0
Co-worker - woman
2
2
Older women
0
2
Older people
0
1
Doctor - woman
0
1
Doctor - man
1
0
Veterinarian - man
0
1
Herbalist - man
1
0
Herbalist - woman
1
0
Others (in general)
0
2
Oral sources - summary
Total number
29
39
Relatives (in total)
19
25
Non-relatives (in total)
10
14
Women
22
29
Men
4
5
Unknown sex
3
5
Non-oral sources
Books
20
10
TV
1
3
Magazine, newspaper
3
0
Internet
1
2
Radio
0
2
. Father Simon Ašič was the most frequently mentioned author; 8 informants in Karst and 5 in Gorjanci reported his books [21, 23, 24]. This finding is in accordance with a survey conducted in seven pharmacies in northeastern Slovenia [34]. From the available publications associated with medicinal plants, most of the informants (43.1%) reported reading the book Priročnik za nabiranje rastlin (English: Manual for wild collection of plants) by Father Simon Ašič [24].
In our study, Maria Treben was the second most reported author; two
informants in Gorjanci and two in Karst reported her work Zdravje iz božje lekarne (English: Health through god’s pharmacy) [25]. In the previously mentioned survey, 17.8% of the informants reported reading this book [34].
Although the majority of books on medicinal plants in the Slovene
language were written by pharmacists, the two most popular authors were
the two with no formal pharmaceutical education.
Among
the plants reported by respondents in our study, there were no plants
that had not been previously reported in the popular books published in
Slovenian language in 20th century. Our results therefore support the
claim [88] made already in the 19th century [90]
that practically all plant species found in ethnomedicinal studies in
Europe are based on knowledge from old herbals. However, new and
interesting details on indications, modes of preparation, and cultural
and ecological influences can be found.
The
influence of modern phytotherapy on folk knowledge was observed in the
terminology used by the informants in the interviews. In some cases, the
informants used modern terms for diseases to describe the medicinal use
of reported plants, e.g., diabetes, angina pectoris, epilepsy, or
depression. Moreover, in some cases, the informants reported that some
plants were beneficial due to their high content of iron, minerals or
vitamins. In contrast, informants frequently reported that some
medicinal plants were good for the blood, weak heart, treatment of
women’s problems, cleansing of blood and kidneys and other
non-professional terms.
Individual
people as oral sources were also important providers of botanical
knowledge to the informants; 20 informants in Karst and 21 in Gorjanci
reported at least one person as their teacher. It seems that women play a
predominant role in the transmission of knowledge, as they were more
frequently reported than men in both regions, although the sex of the
source was sometimes not determined (Table 9).
Relatives were more frequently reported than non-relatives (friends,
co-workers, doctors, etc.), although the latter were often mentioned in
both regions. Among all individual people, mothers were the most
frequently reported source; eight informants in Karst and nine in
Gorjanci mentioned them. Other important sources were grandmothers and
friends in Karst and grandmothers, mothers-in-law and neighbors in
Gorjanci.
Conclusions
The
information collected in Karst and Gorjanci and presented here provides
insight into Slovenian ethnobotanical knowledge, which has received
minimal study and documentation in the past. Karst and Gorjanci are two
remote, rural areas where people are still connected to nature and
knowledge about plants is important to their lives. There were
relatively similar traditions of plant use in both areas; minor regional
differences in wild-collected plants were observed, and these were
mostly due to the ecological availability of the plants. The reported
plants were mostly used for medicinal and nutritive purposes; it seems
that it was the respondent’s intention that determined whether the plant
was used as food or as medicine since both purposes were reported for
approximately 50% of the plants. Numerous and diverse preparations of
medicinal plants were reported for oral and topical applications. The
respondents were mostly elderly people with a mean age of 61 years in
Karst and 69 years in Gorjanci; however, their knowledge about plants
seemed to be influenced by media, most often popular books about
medicinal plants that were published in the 20th century. The results of
this study may be of interest to ethnobotanists interested in the uses
of plants in countries of the former Yugoslavia and for further
ethnobotanical investigations in literate societies, in which folk
knowledge may already be influenced by media, such as books, television
and the internet.
Abbreviations
C:
Cultivated
COS:
Cosmetic use
G:
Gorjanci
K:
Karst
MED:
Medicinal use
NUT:
Nutritive use
OTHER:
Other uses
VET:
Veterinary use
W:
Wild
Declarations
Acknowledgments
The
authors would like to thank the informants from villages neighboring
the birthplace of one of the authors, Mateja Lumpert, in the foothills
of Gorjanci and from villages in Karst. The authors would also like to
thank Assist. Prof. Dr. Uršula Lipovec Čebron of the Faculty of Arts,
University of Ljubljana, who inspired the authors while sharing her
knowledge about anthropological research.
Funding
This study was funded by the
Slovenian Research Agency (Program No. P4-0127). This work is the sole
responsibility of the authors and does not represent the opinion of the
organization providing financial support.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Authors’ contributions
The authors participated in the design of the study and writing the paper. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Consent for publication
Not applicable. This manuscript does not include details, images, or videos relating to informants.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Prior informed consent was obtained from all informants in this study.
Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s)
and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and
indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain
Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
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