Traditional
Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and folklore are repositories of large
amounts of information about the natural world. Ideas, perceptions and
empirical data held by human communities regarding local species are
important sources which enable new scientific discoveries to be made, as
well as offering the potential to solve a number of conservation
problems. We documented the gecko-related folklore and TEK of the people
of southern Portugal, with the particular aim of understanding the main
ideas relating to gecko biology and ecology. Our results suggest that
local knowledge of gecko ecology and biology is both accurate and
relevant. As a result of information provided by local inhabitants,
knowledge of the current geographic distribution of Hemidactylus
turcicus was expanded, with its presence reported in nine new locations.
It was also discovered that locals still have some misconceptions of
geckos as poisonous and carriers of dermatological diseases. The
presence of these ideas has led the population to a fear of and aversion
to geckos, resulting in direct persecution being one of the major
conservation problems facing these animals. It is essential, from both a
scientific and conservationist perspective, to understand the knowledge
and perceptions that people have towards the animals, since, only then,
may hitherto unrecognized pertinent information and conservation
problems be detected and resolved.
Keywords
GekkonidaePortugalreptile conservationfolkloreTEK
Resumo
O conhecimento
Ecológico Tradicional (CET) e o folclore são repositórios de grandes
quantidades de informação sobre a natureza. As ideias das populações
locais, percepções e dados empíricos sobre as espécies são importantes
fontes de novas descobertas científicas e também para resolver alguns
problemas de conservação que possam existir. Procedeu-se à documentação
do folclore e do CET que a população do sul de Portugal apresenta sobre
osgas, visando compreender principalmente aspectos relacionados com a
sua biologia e ecologia, e, também, para documentar o folclore
relacionado ao animal. Os resultados sugerem que o conhecimento da
população sobre a ecologia e biologia das osgas são precisas e
relevantes. Devido às informações prestadas pela população, foi possível
ampliar o conhecimento sobre a distribuição geográfica atual da espécie
Hemidactylus turcicus, documentando a sua presença em nove novos
locais. Além disso percebeu-se que a população ainda possui algumas
ideias erradas em que apresentam as osgas como venenosas e portadores de
doenças dermatológicas. A presença destas ideias leva a população a ter
medo e aversão das osgas, com a perseguição directa a ser um dos
principais problemas de conservação que estes animais têm de enfrentar. É
muito importante para a ciência e conservação entender o conhecimento e
as percepções que as pessoas têm para com os animais, uma vez que as
informações pertinentes e problemas de conservação, até então
desconhecidos, podem ser detectados e resolvidos.
Introduction
Despite its widespread use in many studies, a precise definition of folklore has not yet been established [1].
However, for the purposes of this study it is here defined loosely as a
series of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, taboos, jokes,
popular beliefs, and customs that are the traditions of a given culture,
sub-culture or group, and which have been passed from person to person,
generation to generation, by oral transmission or imitation [2].
A variety of sub-types of folklore can thus be distinguished, including
human tales, animal tales, trickster tales, etc. In a similar manner,
it may be possible to acknowledge the existence of "Folk biology" or an
"Ethnobiology" - the popular understanding and categorization of plants,
fungi and animals [2]
- as a sub-part of a given culture's folklore. Also considered part of
cultural folklore, Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is defined as a
cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief evolving by
adaptative processes and handed down through generations by cultural
transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans)
with one another and with their environment [3].
Several
recent studies have been published which examine the significance of
TEK and folklore, not only in terms of nature conservation, but also as a
source of new scientific knowledge [4].
The vast majority have focused on situations in which TEK and folklore
play a beneficial role in nature conservation, such as the importance of
taboos and social norms for the conservation of species and habitats [5–9], the importance of folklore and the cultural significance of conservation [10, 11], and the importance of TEK for science and conservation [4, 12–20]
However, studies presenting situations in which this type of knowledge
has a negative impact on conservation are few. Also few are the studies
on ethnoherpetology worldwide. Ethnoherpetology can be defined as a
subpart of ethnozoology (which itself can be considered a subpart of
ethnobiology), regarding especially the study of the relations and
knowledge that people have towards reptiles and amphibians. Worldwide
there are few studies on the topic, and mainly concentrated in Africa [21–23], south America [24–28] and Asia [29–32]. In Europe these type of studies are very rare [33–35],
and, in Portugal, besides some anecdotal references in some
herpetological publications, or in old general ethnographic studies,
there are also few studies on the topic [36–38].
We
examined the folklore and TEK held by the people of southern Portugal
concerning geckos. Our objectives were threefold. Firstly, to search for
any possible new information regarding gecko biology and ecology.
Secondly, to document local folklore related to the gecko, including any
misconceptions held by these communities. Finally, we sought to
determine the source of southern Portuguese gecko folklore and TEK, as
well as their possible impact on future scientific studies of geckos and
their conservation.
Natural and Cultural History of Geckos and southern Portugal
Southern
Portugal is generally considered part of the Mediterranean basin, a
biodiversity hot-spot due to the high number of faunal and floral
species found there [39]. Following Rivas-Martinez [40],
southern Portugal can be biogeographically divided into two main
sub-provinces. The Gaditan-Algarvian Sub-province, a lower altitudinal
territory mainly characterized by a thermo-mediterranean, dry to
subhumid bioclimatic stages [41],
and, in contrast, the Lusitan-Extremadurean Sub-province is
characterized by thermo- to mesomediterranean, dry to sub-humid
bioclimatic stages [41].
The Portuguese continental herpetofauna consists of 28 species of reptiles and 17 species of amphibians [42]
that exhibit a wide variety of shapes, colors, behaviors and
lifestyles,. The distribution of Iberian herpetofauna is profoundly
marked by the differential influence of two major bioclimatic regions:
The Atlantic region in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and the
Mediterranean region, whose influence is predominant across the rest of
the Peninsula [42],
including southern Portugal. Reptiles are at home in the dry, warm
Mediterranean region, and are thus extremely abundant and diverse. The
diversity of reptile species increases from north to south (and from
west to east), paralleling aridity gradients [43].
Southern Portugal has a mixed cultural and ethnographic heritage derived from both European and African peoples [44].
From the beginning of the eighth century until the mid-thirteenth
century, the south of Portugal was under Arab rule. The legacy of this
period appears in the name of the region (Al-Andalus),
as well as in its culture, architecture and language, with a very large
quantity of words, names, techniques and even common practices that
still remain today in the Portuguese life. In 1249 A.D., the Portuguese
King, Alfonso III finally conquered the kingdom of the Algarve, ending
an era of over six centuries of Arab domination [44, 45].
Geckos are small reptiles belonging to the Gekkonidae family, and are found in warm climates throughout the world [46, 47] (Figure 1).
Geckos' toes have a special adaptation that allows them to adhere to
most surfaces without the use of liquids or surface tension [48],
and as a result they possess the ability to stick to vertical planes,
and even upside-down on ceilings and similar horizontal surfaces. Geckos
generally have low body volume, large eyes [46, 47], and are unique among lizards in their vocalizations, making chirping sounds during social interaction with other geckos [49].
The majority are carnivorous, feeding mainly on invertebrates such as
mosquitoes, butterflies and spiders, although some species are able to
feed on small vertebrates and even other geckos [46, 50]. Two gecko species are currently described for continental Portugal: Tarentola mauritanica and Hemidactylus turcicus [42].
The latter has a restricted distribution area in Portugal, and is
listed as "Vulnerable" according to the Portuguese Vertebrate Red List [51].
Both species are protected by the Portuguese law, under the
transposition of Bern Convention on the Conservation of European
wildlife and habitats. The most common predators of H. turcicus and T. mauritanica are snakes, owls, domestic cats, hedgehogs, genets, and rats [50]. Both T. mauritanica and H. turcicus suffer from human persecution due to public misconception [37, 52] while the latter are also probably affected by an ongoing loss and degradation of habitat [51].
There is still also a currently paucity of biological and ecological
data regarding both species in terms of their presence in Portugal [42], since few studies were completely dedicated to study these species in the country. T. mauritanica and H. turcicus
may, in certain locations, live sympatrically in open to semi-open
landscapes, but are also occasionally found in areas more densely
covered by vegetation. Preferred habitats are slopes and stream and
river valleys where a multitude of natural and/or artificial crevices
provide rocky structures [50, 53].
Both species may also be found far from any water bodies, and even deep
within human settlements on tree trunks and other vegetative cover [50, 53].
Figure 1
Mature adult male gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus). In July 2010 in Mourão, southern Portugal.
Our study aimed to further the conservation of geckos, especially H. turcicus,
as well as to understand the knowledge and folklore held by local
people regarding these animals. Contrary to most folklore and TEK
studies, which focus on species found in more rural environments, the
present work focuses on a species whose contact with humans occurs
mainly in cities and towns. Despite this close contact, these geckos are
not appreciated - and are even feared and hated - by the residents of
southern Portugal, largely because of pre-existing misconceptions
regarding the animals' biological characteristics. The deliberate
elimination of geckos is a fairly common phenomenon in the region, but
has rarely been studied and is thus not generally understood by the
scientific community. The decrease in the gecko population caused by
deliberate extermination has not yet been estimated, but may be even
greater than the levels observed in the extermination of snakes [38], and as such represents a significant threat.
Methods
We
quantified TEK and folklore through the use of structured,
semi-directed interviews of 865 inhabitants (locals) of southern
Portugal, of which 517 were women and 348 men. The ages of those
questioned ranged from 16 to 98 years, with interviewees coming from the
settlements of Évora, Montemor-o-Novo, Reguengos de Monsaraz, Beja,
Faro, Albufeira and other nearby localities. Locals were randomly
selected in public places. Of the 24 gecko survey sites, 18 were in the
Alentejo region and 6 in the Algarve region. T. mauritanica is found in all 24 locations [42], while H. turcicus is described for only 13.
Our
interview survey was developed collaboratively by university
ecologists, biologists and sociologists, and included 32 questions that
were either open form (respondents expressed their response in their own
words) or a combination of open and closed form (multiple choice, but
with the opportunity to add comments or additional categories). Survey
questions aimed to gather data regarding the distribution, life history,
behavior, habitat use, and cultural significance of the gecko, as well
as attitudes held by locals towards the animals. These methods were
based on those previously employed in similar studies [4, 54].
Interviews
lasting between 15 and 45 minutes were conducted during the period from
28 September 2010 to 16 February 2011. Interview responses were
compiled and summarized as relative percentages of types of response for
each question. Informed consent was given by those interviewed.
Results
The
majority of local knowledge of geckos came from oral tradition (55%),
direct contact with the animal (50%), and television and internet
resources (15%), while only 8% was derived from awareness of scientific
literature and 4% contact with biologists. Most local respondents had
lived in the Alentejo or Algarve areas since birth, and had a family
history in the area extending back at least 2 or 3 generations.
Gecko Biology and Ecology
Nearly
every local agreed that geckos were reptiles (87%), although some
considered them to be amphibians (8%) and even invertebrates (4%).
Nearly half of all locals (44%) were able to distinguish between the two
gecko species, referring to differences in size, color and rugosity of
skin. At 15 of the 24 survey locations, locals recognized the existence
of the same number of gecko species described in the Atlas [42], but at the other 9 locations pointed to the existence of both species, whereas the Atlas [42] described only one (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Distribution of geckos in Portugal at the various survey locations. For all locations at which only one gecko species is described in the Atlas, the species in question is Tarentola mauritanica.
Nearly
every local questioned (98%) named at least one characteristic habitat
in which geckos live. The most common answers given were in the walls of
buildings (90%), rocks (33%), near lamps (32%), rooftops (28%), on the
floor (15%), caves (13%), trees (9%) and bushes (8%). Most locals agreed
that geckos like these places because they are warm (22%), safe (18%),
and have a food source nearby (24%).
Almost
93% of locals named at least one food item in the gecko diet. The most
common food items listed were mosquitoes (82%), spiders (59%), snails
(34%) and slugs (34%). Some respondents also stated that geckos eat
birds' eggs (4%) and other geckos (3%). Similarly, 86% of locals named
at least one predator of geckos, the most common answers being owls
(43%), domestic cats (40%), snakes (30%), rats (19%) and bats (14%).
Most
locals considered geckos to be solitary animals (84%) that do not show
any trace of sociability. Some interviewees recognized that geckos
sometimes vocalize (24%), although most (85%) did not know the reason
for this behavior. Of those who believed they did, the reasons given
were communication with other geckos (8%), mating calls (4%) and
defensive behavior (3%).
Nearly
all locals referred to geckos as being more active during the summer
months (88%) - more precisely during June, July, August and September -
with most believing the animals to be more active during these months
because of temperature (65%). Most locals also referred to geckos as
being more active at night (65%) - more specifically between 9 p.m. and 6
a.m. - although some believed they were active during the morning (8%)
and afternoon (13%). Almost half of all locals questioned stated that
they were aware of ability of the gecko to attach to walls and other
surfaces (51%), with most of these believing geckos to adhere to
surfaces via suction cups (40%) or by a type of sticky substance in
their feet (8%). Sixty five percent of locals considered the gecko to
play an important role in the ecosystem, mainly because they feed on
mosquitoes and invertebrates (45%), but also for being the food base of
many other animals (34%).
Most
interviewees considered the local gecko population to be stable (60%),
but 22% considered the population to be decreasing, with the main
explanations for this decline being human activity (8%) and climate
change (4%).
Gecko Folklore and Cultural significance
Several
locals (4%) thought that geckos feed on human blood and skin, while
approximately 25% believed the gecko to be poisonous and 24% that the
animal was a vector of dermatological diseases. Several stories were
reported regarding the poisonous and disease vector nature of the gecko.
One of the most typical stories presented by the locals (10%) related
to the poisoning of an entire family by a gecko falling into a saucepan
on the stove. "One day, while a woman left the kettle to boil, a gecko
snuck by the window without anyone noticing, and fell into the kettle.
The woman and her children returned home and drank the coffee without
noticing the gecko that had fallen inside. Some hours later, the entire
family was very ill and eventually died". A number of variations of the
story exist, with some pointing to a pot of soup, milk, or even a teapot
instead of a coffee kettle. Others also stated that the family became
quite ill, but did not die.
Another
typical story reported by 10% of locals concerned the accidental
contact between a gecko and human skin. Although the situations in which
such contact took place were different, all referred to the result of
this contact being the development of skin diseases, rashes, fever and
tremendous pain. "Once, a boy was sleeping topless in an old house, and a
gecko fell on him while he slept. The next day the boy was full of
fever and cobro. His skin
was red, blistered and sore, and the boy nearly died." Another story
related to a bride who put on her wedding dress without noticing that
there was a gecko inside, and who then became very ill and full of cobro. "Cobro"
is the name given to a skin inflammation caused by contact with geckos
and spiders which can manifest itself in an undefined manner, but
generally includes the presence of a gecko- or ring-shaped mark on the
torso or limbs of the afflicted, causing his or her death. Others also
believed that a gecko falling on someone's head would cause hair loss.
Most locals relating these stories believed them to have happened to
someone in their towns or villages, or to a distant relative or
acquaintance of an acquaintance, but admitted that no such event had
ever happened to them personally.
Most
locals considered the gecko to be an ugly animal (50%) because of their
reptilian, ghostly and transparent appearance. Others (37%) were
indifferent to the animal, while a few (13%) considered the gecko to be
attractive.
In
addition, most locals (55%) considered the gecko as being useful to
humans, with many of these believing this to be the case because geckos
eat mosquitoes and insects (38%). Ten percent considered the animals to
have an important role in the ecosystem. However, most locals (71%) did
not feel the presence of geckos in their region to be an asset in terms
of the enrichment of their natural and cultural heritage.
Attitudes towards Geckos
Locals
exhibited a variety of attitudes towards the gecko. Most (48%) claimed
to ignore the animal when finding one, while 22% kill them, 20% repel
the animal, 13% flee in fear and 8% ask another person to kill the
gecko. A total of 164 people (19% of the total number surveyed) affirmed
that they had deliberately killed one or more gecko in the last 12
months, representing a total of approximately 1092 geckos killed during
this period. The most frequently provided reasons for killing geckos
were repulsion (42%), fear (14%), and because someone had asked them to
kill it (10%). Most locals did not agree with legal gecko protection
(71%), with 96% unaware of this legislation altogether.
Discussion
Gecko Biology and Ecology
In all cases examined, the interviews carried out here confirm the presence/absence of geckos at the locations refered in the Atlas [42]. However, both gecko species were observed by locals at nine of the investigated sites for which only one (T. mauritanica) is described in the Atlas, potentially representing nine new records for H. turcicus in Portugal. One such case has already been proven after on-site investigation [55].
Since not only did most respondents use very specific characteristics
to differentiate the two species (size, color, feet), consistent with
the official differences presented in the literature, but also since the
climatic and environmental conditions of the new locations are very
similar to sites at which the animal has already been described, it is
likely that these new locations are correct. This new information
represents a significant development, but nevertheless, formal
scientific research should be carried out at each site in order to
confirm the existence of the species. In any case, the new data
collected here may be used to review the conservation status of H. turcicus, since the animal has been assigned "vulnerable" status in Portugal because of its reduced distribution [51]. Indeed, this current situation may reflect the lack of studies carried out regarding the species.
Traditional
and scientific knowledge of gecko biology and ecology were largely
similar (e.g., in terms of taxonomy, diet, predators and habitats), but
differed with respect to certain specific aspects - namely the manner of
gecko adherence to vertical surfaces. This misconception may be
explained by the roundedness of the animals' feet, which often reminded
locals of 'suckers'.
Gecko Folklore and Cultural significance
Unlike
that of most other Portuguese amphibians and reptiles, ethnozoological
data about geckos is rare. Most ideas and stories reported by
respondents in the present study are consistent with those presented by
Ceríaco [37],
with geckos having very negative connotations and blamed for human skin
diseases and poisoning. These beliefs are, however, completely
unjustified, since the animal does not possess any kind of toxin that
causes poisoning or disease [46].
In addition, there is no known medical or scientific evidence which
suggests the gecko to be a vector for the transmission of any kind of
bacteria, fungus or virus that may cause dermatological diseases such as
the "Cobro".
Ceríaco [37]
argues that this negative connotation is the result of the region's
Arabic cultural heritage, presenting several reasons to support this
hypothesis. The influence of Arab culture was felt most strongly in
Portugal from the eighth to thirteenth centuries, and left a significant
mark on local language, architecture, culture, gastronomy, etc. [45]. As indicated in Ceríaco [37], the noun for gecko in Portuguese (Osga) is etymologically and phonetically similar to the Arabic equivalent (Whazaga). This idea has been previously outlined in etymological studies which considers "Osga" as an arabism in the Portuguese language [56, 57].
Similar
folklore and stories are shared by the inhabitants of the region
stretching from the Asiatic south-west to the Iberian Peninsula and
North Africa. For example, the Khushmaan Ma'aza Bedouin tribe from
Egypt's Eastern Desert consider geckos to be poisonous, believing
contact with the animal leads to death [23].
This tribe also believes the poison of the animal to be contained in
its tongue, and that it is transmitted to humans through contact with
kitchen utensils or water supply.
Frembgen [29]
reports that in Pakistan and northern India very similar stories and
ideas to those told by the Portuguese population, especially in terms of
the spread of dermatological diseases and the poisoning of food, water
or cooking utensils. Communities in northern India and Afghanistan
believe that direct contact with geckos is likely to cause skin
diseases, and that food is poisoned. In Yemen and many other Arab
countries, skin diseases are often attributed to a gecko having run over
the face of the afflicted individual as he or she slept (Wranik 1993 in
[29]).
By
contrast, in countries with only a minor (or entirely absent) Arabic
cultural presence, the gecko is seen in a much more positive and
friendly light [37].
Even though most people we surveyed considered the animal to be useful
to humans - in particular their ability to maintain or reduce the number
of mosquitoes - there has as yet been no improvement in the bad
reputation of the gecko. This may be due in part to the fact that even
though mosquitoes cause humans some discomfort, the incidence of
diseases caused by mosquitoes such as malaria is fairly low in Portugal,
and the control of mosquitoes by geckos is thus not as important as it
is in countries where these diseases are more prevalent.
As
an animal considered ugly by most people, their presence is not seen as
an asset, either culturally or ecologically. In contrast to smaller and
less 'showy' animals, such as reptiles [37, 38], invertebrates [58] and even some mammals [59],
species such as eagles, pandas, dolphins and the Iberian lynx, on the
other hand, are seen as beautiful, interesting and 'fluffy', and serve
as flagship species for conservation [60].
Attitudes towards geckos
Reptiles, as do insects and other animals considered harmful [59–61],
tend to suffer from a lack of appreciation by the human population,
which translates into less support for their conservation [38]. The situation of geckos in Portugal follows this global trend.
Most
inhabitants questioned did not agree that the animal should be legally
protected, a view exacerbated by a lack of knowledge regarding the
reasons for this legal protection. Although the gecko is protected by
law [51],
most locals are unaware of this fact, with the animal even facing
active persecution. It is likely that even if the population were aware
of the law they would act the same way, as there is currently no
monitoring undertaken by the authorities. Despite only a small minority
of locals partaking in this type of action, such persecution is known to
take place with quite considerable frequency. Their proximity to humans
only makes it easy to kill the animals on a large scale. With geckos
exhibiting very gregarious behavior, low dispersion and having a low
number of eggs laid [50, 53],
the extermination of a substantial group of individuals may lead to
significant problems and even the localized extinction of certain
populations within the species distribution area.
Implications for Science & Conservation
Analyzing
the differences between TEK and scientific knowledge also represents an
important opportunity for conservation research [4].
The information provided by locals made it possible to expand our
knowledge of the current geographic distribution of geckos, with the
presence of H. turcicus reported in locations where it was not previously described (Figure 2), and, in one case [55],
leading to the documentation of its presence in a location where it was
not previously known. At 15 of the 24 survey locations, locals
recognized the existence of the same number of gecko species described
in the Atlas, but at the other 9 locations pointed to the existence of both species, whereas the Atlas described only one (Figure 2).
Most respondents described very specific gecko characteristics, and
were able to accurately differentiate the two species to a level
consistent with the overall differences presented in the scientific
literature. The climatic and environmental conditions of the newly
described locations are also quite similar to those of the locations at
which this animal has already been described. All of these new sites
were then investigated in order to confirm the presence of H. turcicus, with positive results (not yet published).
This
study also discovered a rich local folklore related to geckos. Folklore
is a rather complex cultural phenomenon that affects people's lives,
their relationship with nature, and even nature itself [3]. Although many authors agree on the necessity of the conservation of folklore [14, 62],
its persistence may occasionally represent a serious threat to
biodiversity, and must therefore be studied, debated, divulgated, and
even controlled, by establishing effective and large actions and
programs on environmental education and even in the school curricula.
The many myths and folklore tales relating to these animals, in which they are presented as dangerous and venomous [37], contribute to the nature and persistence of public misconceptions held towards them. Ceríaco [38]
has argued that the presence of such negative values regarding
amphibians and reptiles clearly influences human persecution of these
animals. In the case of geckos in Portugal, folklore and misconceptions
have had an obviously adverse effect on the relationship between locals
and these animals, resulting in their extermination and a lack of public
support for their conservation. This persecution has already and will
continue to result in the deaths of a considerable number of geckos, and
despite the legal protection the animals enjoy, such activity is
difficult to police and punish. The problem of direct persecution of
herpetofauna is not a residual one, but in fact constitutes a major
threat to the survival of some European reptile species, including those
not currently endangered [63].
One
obvious solution to this problem is to place an increased emphasis on
environmental education, as proposed by Whitaker and Shine [64],
who suggest that such programs should focus on the clarification of the
degree of danger and usefulness of these animals, as well as on the
clearer presentation of their real nature (as opposed to their negative
portrayal in folklore and their aesthetic characteristics.). Gecko life
history, ecology and conservation should also be addressed, with a
particular focus on the potential usefulness of these animals as
predators of pests, and on their contribution to food-chain equilibrium.
We
can therefore conclude that TEK can provide two types of important
information: Bio-ecological and cultural. In this study, TEK-derived
bio-ecological information led to the report of nine new populations of H. turcicus, one of those already proven right [55]. This information is essential in order to review the species' conservation status. Due to its reduced distribution area, H. turcicus
is currently listed as Vulnerable (VU) in Portugal, although this
situation may be due to the lack of studies and information about the
species. In contrast, TEK-derived cultural information provided a better
idea of the persecution that these animals suffer.
In
order to protect animals which are part of a strong cultural heritage
and regarding which a large number of stories and misconceptions exist,
an interdisciplinary approach is essential. Such an approach includes
ethnoherpetological studies, with the analysis of local TEK and
folklore, as examination of misconceptions is necessary not only to
understand why they still exist in the popular imagination, but also how
they may constitute a real risk to the survival of the species in
question.
Declarations
Acknowledgements
This
paper is a result of the volunteering project "Salvem as Osgas!",
funded and managed by the Conselho de Estudantes de Biologia de Évora
(CEBE) (the biology students association) at the University of Évora.
The authors would like to thank all former and current members of CEBE
involved in the creation and management of this student association and
who made this project possible. Thanks also go to the following
undergraduate colleagues who assisted with data collection; M. Pereira,
Mr. Pereira, S. Henriques, R. Matos, J. Parreira, J. Velada, J. Damas,
M. Mariano, F. Calado, A. Lopes, A. Soares, R. Ramos, M. Duarte, G.
Pires, E. Magalhães and many others. We would especially like to express
our gratitude to all those who worked and supported us, and, above all,
have always believed (and demonstrated with the publication of this
paper) that the existence of goodwill, interest in and devotion to
science and conservation are much more important than the economic
constraints and academic hierarchies that often block most research
projects.
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